Iceland GeoSurvey grensasvegur 9, 108 Reykjavik

Carbon dioxide emissions and heat flow through soil, steam vents and fractures, and steam heated mud pools were determined in the Reykjanes geothermal area, SW Iceland. Soil diffuse degassing of CO2 was quantified by soil flux measurements on a 600 m by 375 m rectangular grid using a portable closed chamber soil flux meter and the resulting data were analyzed by both a graphical statistical method and sequential Gaussian simulations. The soil temperature was measured in each node of the grid and used to evaluate the heat flow. The heat flow data were also analyzed by sequential Gaussian simulations. Heat flow from steam vents and fractures was determined by quantifying the amount of steam emitted from the vents by direct measurements of steam flow rate. The heat loss from the steam heated mud pools was determined by quantifying the rate of heat loss from the pools by evaporation, convection, and radiation. The steam flow rate into the pools was calculated from the observed heat loss from the pools, assuming that steam flow was the only mechanism of heat transport into the pool. The CO2 emissions from the steam vents and mud pools were determined by multiplying the steam flow rate from the respective sources by the representative CO2 concentration of steam in the Reykjanes area. The observed rates of CO2 emissions through soil, steam vents, and steam heated mud pools amounted to 13.5 ± 1.7, 0.23 ± 0.05, and 0.13 ± 0.03 tons per day, respectively. The heat flow through soil, steam vents, and mud pools was 16.9 ± 1.4, 2.2 ± 0.4, and 1.2 ± 0.1 MW, respectively. Heat loss from the geothermal reservoir, inferred from the CO2 emissions through the soil amounts to 130 ± 16 MW of thermal energy. The discrepancy between the observed heat loss and the heat loss inferred from the CO2 emissions is attributed to steam condensation in the subsurface due to interactions with cold ground water. These results demonstrate that soil diffuse degassing can be a more reliable proxy for heat loss from geothermal systems than soil temperatures. The soil diffuse degassing at Reykjanes appears to be strongly controlled by the local tectonics. The observed diffuse degassing defines 3–5 elongated N–S trending zones (000–020 ). The orientation of the diffuse degassing structures at Reykjanes is consistent with reported trends of right lateral strike slip faults in the area. The natural CO2 emissions from Reykjanes under the current low-production conditions are about 16% of the expected emissions from a 100 MWe power plant, which has recently been commissioned at Reykjanes.

A new geothermometer (TCO2 Flux) is proposed based on soil diffuse CO2 flux and shallow temperature measurements made on areas of steam heated, thermally altered ground above active geothermal systems. This CO2 flux geothermometer is based on a previously reported CO2 geothermometer that was designed for use with fumarole analysis. The new geothermometer provides a valuable additional exploration tool for estimating subsurface temperatures in high-temperature geothermal systems. Mean TCO2 Flux estimates fall within the range of deep drill hole temperatures at Wairakei (New Zealand), Tauhara (New Zealand), Rotokawa (New Zealand), Ohaaki (New Zealand), Reykjanes (Iceland) and Copahue (Argentina). The spatial distribution of geothermometry estimates is consistent with the location of major upflow zones previously reported at the Wairakei and Rotokawa geothermal systems. TCO2 Flux was also evaluated at White Island (New Zealand) and Reporoa (New Zealand), where limited sub-surface data exists. Mode TCO2 Flux at White Island is high (320 C), the highest of the systems considered in this study. However, the geothermometer relies on mineral–water equilibrium in neutral pH reservoir fluids, and would not be reliable in such an active and acidic environment. Mean TCO2 Flux at Reporoa (310 C) is high, which indicates Reporoa has a separate upflow from the nearby Waiotapu geothermal system; an outflow from Waiotapu would not be expected to have such high temperature.

Nitrogen isotopes , N2/36Ar and 3He/4He were measured in volcanic fluids within different geodynamic settings. Subduction zones are represented by Aeolian archipelago, Mexican volcanic belt and Hellenic arc, spreading zones – by Socorro island in Mexico and Iceland and hot spots by Iceland and Islands of Cabo Verde. The δ15N values, corrected for air contamination of volcanic fluids, discharged from Vulcano Island (Italy), highlighted the presence of heavy nitrogen (around +4.3 ±0.5‰). Similar 15N values (around +5‰), have been measured for the fluids collected in the Jalisco Block, that is a geologically and tectonically complex forearc zone of the northwestern Mexico [1]. Positive values (15N around +3‰) have been also measured in the volcanic fluids discharged from Nysiros island located in the Ellenic Arc characterized by subduction processes. All uncorrected data for the Socorro island are in the range of -1 to -2‰. The results of raw nitrogen isotope data of Iceland samples reveal more negative isotope composition (about -4.4‰). On the basis of the non-atmospheric N2 fraction (around 50%) the corrected data of 15N for Iceland are around -16‰, very close to the values proposed by [2]. In a volcanic gas sample from Fogo volcano (Cabo Verde islands) we found a very negative value: -9.9‰ and -15‰ for raw and corrected values, respectively.

Hekla is a frequently active volcano with an infamously short pre-eruptive warning period. Our project contributes to the ongoing work on improving Hekla’s monitoring and early warning systems. In 2012 we began monitoring gas release at Hekla. The dataset comprises semi-permanent near-real time measurements with a MultiGAS system, quantification of diffuse gas flux, and direct samples analysed for composition and isotopes (δ13C, δD and δ18O). In addition, we used reaction path modelling to derive information on the origin and reaction pathways of the gas emissions. Hekla’s quiescent gas composition was CO2-dominated (0.8 mol fraction) and the δ13C signature was consistent with published values for Icelandic magmas. The gas is poor in H2O and S compared to hydrothermal manifestations and syn-eruptive emissions from other active volcanic systems in Iceland. The total CO2 flux from Hekla central volcano (diffuse soil emissions) is at least 44 T d−1, thereof 14 T d−1 are sourced from a small area at the volcano’s summit. There was no detectable gas flux at other craters, even though some of them had higher ground temperatures and had erupted more recently. Our measurements are consistent with a magma reservoir at depth coupled with a shallow dike beneath the summit. In the current quiescent state, the composition of the exsolved gas is substantially modified along its pathway to the surface through cooling and interaction with wall-rock and groundwater. The modification involves both significant H2O condensation and scrubbing of S-bearing species, leading to a CO2-dominated gas emitted at the summit. We conclude that a compositional shift towards more S- and H2O-rich gas compositions if measured in the future by the permanent MultiGAS station should be viewed as sign of imminent volcanic unrest on Hekla.

Nitrogen isotopes , N2/36Ar and 3He/4He were measured in volcanic fluids within different geodynamic settings. Subduction zones are represented by Aeolian archipelago, Mexican volcanic belt and Hellenic arc, spreading zones – by Socorro island in Mexico and Iceland and hot spots by Iceland and Islands of Cabo Verde. The δ15N values, corrected for air contamination of volcanic fluids, discharged from Vulcano Island (Italy), highlighted the presence of heavy nitrogen (around +4.3 ±0.5‰). Similar 15N values (around +5‰), have been measured for the fluids collected in the Jalisco Block, that is a geologically and tectonically complex forearc zone of the northwestern Mexico [1]. Positive values (15N around +3‰) have been also measured in the volcanic fluids discharged from Nysiros island located in the Ellenic Arc characterized by subduction processes. All uncorrected data for the Socorro island are in the range of -1 to -2‰. The results of raw nitrogen isotope data of Iceland samples reveal more negative isotope composition (about -4.4‰). On the basis of the non-atmospheric N2 fraction (around 50%) the corrected data of 15N for Iceland are around -16‰, very close to the values proposed by [2]. In a volcanic gas sample from Fogo volcano (Cabo Verde islands) we found a very negative value: -9.9‰ and -15‰ for raw and corrected values, respectively.

It has recently been demonstrated that methane emission from lithosphere degassing is an important component of the natural greenhouse-gas atmospheric budget. Globally, the geological sources are mainly due to seepage from hydrocarbon-prone sedimentary basins, and subordinately from geothermal/volcanic fluxes. This work provides a first estimate of methane emission from the geothermal/volcanic component at European level. In Europe, 28 countries have geothermal systems and at least 10 countries host surface geothermal manifestations (hot springs, mofettes, gas vents). Even if direct methane flux measurements are available only for a few small areas in Italy, a fair number of data on CO2, CH4 and steam composition and flux from geothermal manifestations are today available for 6 countries (Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy, Spain). Following the emission factor and area-based approach, the available data have been analyzed and have led to an early and conservative estimate of methane emission into the atmosphere around 10,000 ton/yr (4000–16,000 ton/yr), basically from an area smaller than 4000 km2, with a speculative upper limit in the order of 105 ton/yr. Only 4–18% of the conservative estimate (about 720 ton/yr) is due to 12 European volcanoes, where methane concentration in volcanic gases is generally in the order of a few tens of ppmv. Volcanoes are thus not a significant methane source. While the largest emission is due to geothermal areas, which may be situated next to volcanoes or independent. Here inorganic synthesis, thermometamorphism and thermal breakdown of organic matter are substantial. Methane flux can reach hundreds of ton/yr from small individual vents. Geothermal methane is mainly released in three countries located in the main high heat flow regions: Italy, Greece, and Iceland. Turkey is likely a fourth important contributor but the absolute lack of data prevents any emission estimate. Therefore, the actual European geothermal–volcanic methane emission could be easily projected to the 105 ton/yr levels, reaching the magnitude of some other natural sources such as forest fires or wild animals.