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Differences in Landsat TM derived lava flow thermal structures during summit and flank eruption at Mount Etna
Author(s)
Language
English
Status
Published
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/134(2004)
Pages (printed)
(15-34)
Issued date
2004
Abstract
Abstract
The simultaneous solution of the Planck equation (the so-called ‘‘dual-band’’ technique) for two shortwave infrared Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM) bands allows an estimate of the fractional area of the hottest part of an active flow and the temperature
of the cooler crust. Here, the dual-band method has been applied to a time series of Mount Etna eruptions. The frequency
distribution of the fractional area of the hottest component reveals specific differences between summit and flank lava flows.
The shape of the density function shows a trend consistent with a Gaussian distribution and suggests a relationship between the
moments of the distribution and the emplacement environment. Because flow composition of Etnean lavas generally remains
constant during the duration of their emplacement, it appears that the shape of any particular frequency distribution is probably
related to fluid mechanical aspects of flow emplacement that affect flow velocity and flow heat loss and thus the rate of
formation of the surface crust. These factors include the influence of topographical features such as changes in slope gradient,
changes in volume effusion rate, and progressive downflow increases in bulk or effective viscosity. A form of the general
theoretical solution for the ‘dual-band’ system, which illustrates the relationship between radiance in TM bands 5 and 7,
corresponding to hot fractional area and crust temperature, is presented. Generally speaking, it appears that for a given flow at
any point in time, larger fractional areas of exposed hot material are correlated with higher temperatures and that, while the
overall shape of that distribution is common for the flows studied, its amplitude and slope reflect individual flow rheological
regimes.
The simultaneous solution of the Planck equation (the so-called ‘‘dual-band’’ technique) for two shortwave infrared Landsat
Thematic Mapper (TM) bands allows an estimate of the fractional area of the hottest part of an active flow and the temperature
of the cooler crust. Here, the dual-band method has been applied to a time series of Mount Etna eruptions. The frequency
distribution of the fractional area of the hottest component reveals specific differences between summit and flank lava flows.
The shape of the density function shows a trend consistent with a Gaussian distribution and suggests a relationship between the
moments of the distribution and the emplacement environment. Because flow composition of Etnean lavas generally remains
constant during the duration of their emplacement, it appears that the shape of any particular frequency distribution is probably
related to fluid mechanical aspects of flow emplacement that affect flow velocity and flow heat loss and thus the rate of
formation of the surface crust. These factors include the influence of topographical features such as changes in slope gradient,
changes in volume effusion rate, and progressive downflow increases in bulk or effective viscosity. A form of the general
theoretical solution for the ‘dual-band’ system, which illustrates the relationship between radiance in TM bands 5 and 7,
corresponding to hot fractional area and crust temperature, is presented. Generally speaking, it appears that for a given flow at
any point in time, larger fractional areas of exposed hot material are correlated with higher temperatures and that, while the
overall shape of that distribution is common for the flows studied, its amplitude and slope reflect individual flow rheological
regimes.
References
References
Archambault, C., Tanguy, J.C., 1976. Comparative temperature
measurements on Mount Etna lavas: problems and techniques.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 1, 113– 125.
Armienti, P., Clocchiatti, R., D’Orazio, M., Innocenti, F., Petrini,
R., Pompilio, M., Tonarini, S., Villari, L., 1994. The long standing
1991 – 1993 Mount Etna eruption: petrography and geochemistry
of lavas. Acta Vulcanologica 4, 15–28.
Barberi, F., Villari, L., 1994. Volcano monitoring and civil protection
problems during the 1991– 1993 Etna eruption. Acta Vulcanologica
V.4, 157– 166.
Barberi, F., Carapezza, M.L., Valenza, M., Villari, L., 1993. The
control of lava flow during the 1991– 1992 eruption of Mt. Etna.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 56, 1– 34.
Borgia, A., Linneman, S., Spencer, D., Morales, L., Andre, L.,
1983. Dynamics of the flow fronts, Arenal volcano, Costa Rica.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 19, 303–329.
Calvari, S., Coltelli, M., Neri, M., Pompilio, M., Scribano, V., 1994.
The 1991 – 1993 Etna eruption: chronology and geological
observations. Acta Vulcanologica V.4, 1– 14.
Chiarabba, C., Amato, A., Boschi, E., Barberi, F., 2000. Recent
seismicity and tomographic modeling of the Mount Etna plumbing
system. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 10923–10938.
Crisp, J., Baloga, S., 1990. A model for lava flows with two thermal
componets. Journal of Geophysical Research 95, 1255–1270.
Dozier, J., 1981. A method for satellite identification of surface
temperature fields of subpixel resolution. Journal of Remote
Sensing and Environment 11, 221– 229.
Dragoni, M., 1989. A dynamic model of lava flows cooling by
radiation. Bulletin Volcanologique 51, 88– 95.
Fink, J.H., Griffiths, R.W., 1992. A laboratory analogue study of a
surface morphology of lava flows extruded from point and line
sources. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 54,
19–32.
Flynn, L.P., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Gradie, J.C., Lucey, P.G., 1993.
Radiative themperature measurements at Kupaianaha lava lake,
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. Journal of Geophysical Research 98
(B4), 6461–6476.
Flynn, L.P., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Horton, K.A., 1994. Distribution
of thermal areas on an active lava flow field: Landsat observations
of Kilauea, Hawaii, July 1991. Bulletin Volcanologique
56, 284– 296.
Flynn, L.P., Harris, A.J.L., Rothery, R.D.A., Oppenheimer, C.,
2000. High-Spatial resolution thermal remote sensing of active
volcanic features using Landsat and hyperspectral data. Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, AGU Geophysical Monograph
Series 116, 161– 177.
Flynn, L.P., Harris, A.J.L., Wright, R., 2001. Improved identification
of volcanic features using Landsat 7 ETM+ . Remote Sensing
of Environment 78, 180– 193.
Gauthier, F., 1973. Field and laboratory studies of the rheology of
Mount Etna lava. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London 274, 83– 98.
Glaze, L., Francis, P.W., Rothery, D.A., 1989. Measuring thermal
budgets of active volcanoes by satellite remote sensing. Nature
338, 144– 146.
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984a. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/84 (SEAN 09:06).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984b. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/84 (SEAN 09:06).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984c. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 05/84 (SEAN 09:05).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984d. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 04/84 (SEAN 09:04).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1991. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 12/91 (BGVN 16:12).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992a. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 08/92 (BGVN 17:08).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992b. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 02/92 (BGVN 17:02).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992c. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 01/92 (BGVN 17:01).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1993. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 03/93 (BGVN 18:03).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1996. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 07/96 (BGVN 21:07).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1999. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/99 (BGVN 24:06).
Gregg, T.K.P., Fink, J.H., 2000. A laboratory investigation into the
effects of slope on lava flow morphology. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research 96, 145– 159.
Harris, A.J.L., Blake, S., Rothery, D.A., 1997. A chronology of the
1991 to 1993 Mount Etna eruption using advanced very high
resolution radiometer data: implication for real-time thermal
volcano monitoring. Journal of Geophysical Research 102,
7985– 8003.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginis-Mark, P.J.,
Rowland, S.K., Resing, J.A., 1998. Calculation of lava effusion
rates from Landsat TM data. Bulletin Volcanologique 60, 52– 71.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Rothery, D.A., Oppenheimer, C., Sherman,
S.B., 1999. Mass flux measurements at active lava lakes:
implications for magma recycling. Journal of Geophysical Research
104, 7117– 7136.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Dean, K., Pilger, E., Wooster, M.J.,
Okubo, C., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Garbeil, H., Thornbern, C.,
De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Rothery, D.A., Wright, R., 2000a. Real-time monitoring of volcanic hot-spots with satellites. Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, AGU Geophysical Monograph
Series 116, 139– 159.
Harris, A.J.L., Murray, J.B., Aries, S.E., Davies, M.A., Flynn, L.P.,
Wooster, M.J., Wright, R., Rothery, D.A., 2000b. Effusion rate
trends at Etna and Krafta and their implications for eruptive
mechanisms. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
102, 237–269.
Kilburn, C.R.J., 1990. Surface of aa flow-fields on Mt. Etna, Sicily:
morphology, rheology, crystallization and scaling phenomena.
In: Fink, J.H. (Ed.), IAVCEI Proceedings in Volcanology, vol. 2:
Lava Flows and Domes—Emplacement Mechanisms and Hazard
Implications. Springer, Berlin, pp. 129– 156.
Kilburn, C.R.J., 1993. Lava crusts, aa flow lengthening and the
pahoehoe – aa transition. In: Kilburn, C.R.J., Luongo, G.
(Eds.), Active Lavas: Monitoring and Modelling. UCL Press,
London, pp. 263–280.
Lange, R.A., 1994. Diffusion in volatile-bearing magmas. In:
Carroll, M.R., Holloway, J.R. (Eds.), Volatiles in Magmas.
Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 30. Mineral. Soc. Am., Washington
DC, pp. 331– 369.
Metrich, N., Allard, P., Andronico, D., 2002. Preliminary constraints
on volatile abundances in basalts erupted during the
2001 flank eruption on Mount Etna. Geophysical Research Abstract,
vol. 4, 27th General Assembly, EGS, Nice 2000 (EGS02-
A-06200).
Montone, P., Amato, A., Pondrelli, S., 1999. Active stress map of
Italy. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (B11), 25–595.
Murru, M., Montuori, C., Wyss, M., Privitera, E., 1999. The location
of the magma chambers at Mt. Etna, Italy, mapped by b
values. Geophysical Research Letters 26, 2553–2556.
Oppenheimer, C., 1991. Lava flow cooling estimated from Landsat
Thematic Mapper infrared data: the Lonquimay eruption (Chile,
1989). Journal of Geophysical Research 96, 21865– 21878.
Oppenheimer, C., 1993a. Infrared surveillance of crater lakes using
satellite data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
55, 117– 128.
Oppenheimer, C., 1993b. Thermal distributions of hot volcanic
surfaces constrained using three infrared bands of remote sensing
data. Geophysical Research Letters 20 (6), 431– 434.
Oppenheimer, C., 1998. Satellite observation of active carbonatite
volcanism at Ol Dionyo Lengai, Tanzania. International Journal
of Remote Sensing 19, 55–64.
Oppenheimer, C., Francis, P.W., Rothery, D.A., Carlton, R.W.T.,
Glaze, L., 1993a. Infrared image analysis of volcanic thermal
features: La`scar Volcano, Chile, 1984– 1992. Journal of Geophysical
Research 98, 4269– 4286.
Oppenheimer, C., Rothery, D.A., Francis, P.W., 1993b. Thermal
distribution at fumarole fields: implications for infrared remote
sensing of active volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research 55, 97–115.
Oppenheimer, C., Rothery, D.A., Pieri, D.C., Abrams, M.J., Carrere,
V., 1993c. Analysis of Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data of volcanic hot spots. International
Journal of Remote Sensing 14 (16), 2919–2934.
Pieri, D.C., Buongiorno, M.F., in prep. Systematic summit crater
radiance increase as seen in Landsat TM data before the 1991–
93 eruption on Mt. Etna. Under review. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research.
Pieri, D.C., Glaze, L.S., Abrams, M.J., 1990. Thermal radiance
observation of an active lava flow during the June 1984 eruption
of Mt. Etna. Geology 18, 1018–1022.
Pinkerton, H., Stevenson, R.J., 1992. Methods of determining the
rheological properties of magmas at sub-liquidus temperatures.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 53, 47– 66.
Rittmann, A., Romano, R., Sturiale, C., 1973. Some considerations
on the 1971 Etna eruption and on the tectonophysics of the
Mediterranean area. Geologische Rundschau 62, 418– 430.
Romano, R., Sturiale, C., 1982. The historical eruptions of Mount
Etna (volcanological data). Memorie della Societa Geologica
Italiana 23, 75– 97.
Romano, R., Vaccaro, C., 1986. The recent eruptive activity on
Mt. Etna Sicily, 1981–1985. Periodico di Mineralogia 55,
91– 111.
Rothery, D.A., Francis, P.W., Wood, C.A., 1988. Volcano monitoring
using short wavelength infrared data from satellite. Journal
of Geophysical Research 93, 7993– 8008.
Rothery, D.A., Borgia, A., Carlton, R.W., Oppenheimer, C., 1992.
The 1992 Etna lava flow imaged by Landsat TM. International
Journal of Remote Sensing 13, 2759– 2763.
Trigila, R., Spera, F.J., Aurisicchio, C., 1990. The 1983 Mount Etna
eruption: thermochemical and dynamical inferences. Contributions
to Mineralogy and Petrology 104, 594–608.
Wadge, G., 1978. Effusion rate and the shape of aa lava flow-fields
on Mount Etna. Geology 6, 503– 506.
Walker, G.P.L., 1973. Lenght of lava flows. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London. A 274, 107– 118.
Watson, E.B., 1994. Diffusion in volatile-bearing magmas. In:
Carroll, M.R., Holloway, J.R. (Eds.), Volatiles in Magmas.
Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 30. Mineral. Soc. Am., Washington
DC, pp. 372– 411.
Wooster, M.J., Kaneko, T., Nakada, S., Shimizu, H., 2000. Discimination
of lava dome activity styles using satellite-derived
thermal structurs. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
102, 97– 118.
Wright, R., Flynn, P.F., Harris, A.J.L., 2001. Evolution of lava
flow-fields at Mount Etna, 27–28 October 1999, observed by
Landsat 7 ETM+ . Bulletin Volcanologique 63, 1– 7.
Archambault, C., Tanguy, J.C., 1976. Comparative temperature
measurements on Mount Etna lavas: problems and techniques.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 1, 113– 125.
Armienti, P., Clocchiatti, R., D’Orazio, M., Innocenti, F., Petrini,
R., Pompilio, M., Tonarini, S., Villari, L., 1994. The long standing
1991 – 1993 Mount Etna eruption: petrography and geochemistry
of lavas. Acta Vulcanologica 4, 15–28.
Barberi, F., Villari, L., 1994. Volcano monitoring and civil protection
problems during the 1991– 1993 Etna eruption. Acta Vulcanologica
V.4, 157– 166.
Barberi, F., Carapezza, M.L., Valenza, M., Villari, L., 1993. The
control of lava flow during the 1991– 1992 eruption of Mt. Etna.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 56, 1– 34.
Borgia, A., Linneman, S., Spencer, D., Morales, L., Andre, L.,
1983. Dynamics of the flow fronts, Arenal volcano, Costa Rica.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 19, 303–329.
Calvari, S., Coltelli, M., Neri, M., Pompilio, M., Scribano, V., 1994.
The 1991 – 1993 Etna eruption: chronology and geological
observations. Acta Vulcanologica V.4, 1– 14.
Chiarabba, C., Amato, A., Boschi, E., Barberi, F., 2000. Recent
seismicity and tomographic modeling of the Mount Etna plumbing
system. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 10923–10938.
Crisp, J., Baloga, S., 1990. A model for lava flows with two thermal
componets. Journal of Geophysical Research 95, 1255–1270.
Dozier, J., 1981. A method for satellite identification of surface
temperature fields of subpixel resolution. Journal of Remote
Sensing and Environment 11, 221– 229.
Dragoni, M., 1989. A dynamic model of lava flows cooling by
radiation. Bulletin Volcanologique 51, 88– 95.
Fink, J.H., Griffiths, R.W., 1992. A laboratory analogue study of a
surface morphology of lava flows extruded from point and line
sources. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 54,
19–32.
Flynn, L.P., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Gradie, J.C., Lucey, P.G., 1993.
Radiative themperature measurements at Kupaianaha lava lake,
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii. Journal of Geophysical Research 98
(B4), 6461–6476.
Flynn, L.P., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Horton, K.A., 1994. Distribution
of thermal areas on an active lava flow field: Landsat observations
of Kilauea, Hawaii, July 1991. Bulletin Volcanologique
56, 284– 296.
Flynn, L.P., Harris, A.J.L., Rothery, R.D.A., Oppenheimer, C.,
2000. High-Spatial resolution thermal remote sensing of active
volcanic features using Landsat and hyperspectral data. Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, AGU Geophysical Monograph
Series 116, 161– 177.
Flynn, L.P., Harris, A.J.L., Wright, R., 2001. Improved identification
of volcanic features using Landsat 7 ETM+ . Remote Sensing
of Environment 78, 180– 193.
Gauthier, F., 1973. Field and laboratory studies of the rheology of
Mount Etna lava. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London 274, 83– 98.
Glaze, L., Francis, P.W., Rothery, D.A., 1989. Measuring thermal
budgets of active volcanoes by satellite remote sensing. Nature
338, 144– 146.
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984a. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/84 (SEAN 09:06).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984b. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/84 (SEAN 09:06).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984c. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 05/84 (SEAN 09:05).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1984d. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 04/84 (SEAN 09:04).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1991. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 12/91 (BGVN 16:12).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992a. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 08/92 (BGVN 17:08).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992b. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 02/92 (BGVN 17:02).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1992c. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 01/92 (BGVN 17:01).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1993. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 03/93 (BGVN 18:03).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1996. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 07/96 (BGVN 21:07).
Global Volcanism Network (GVN), 1999. Etna, Smithson. Inst.
Bull. Global Volcan. Network, 06/99 (BGVN 24:06).
Gregg, T.K.P., Fink, J.H., 2000. A laboratory investigation into the
effects of slope on lava flow morphology. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research 96, 145– 159.
Harris, A.J.L., Blake, S., Rothery, D.A., 1997. A chronology of the
1991 to 1993 Mount Etna eruption using advanced very high
resolution radiometer data: implication for real-time thermal
volcano monitoring. Journal of Geophysical Research 102,
7985– 8003.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginis-Mark, P.J.,
Rowland, S.K., Resing, J.A., 1998. Calculation of lava effusion
rates from Landsat TM data. Bulletin Volcanologique 60, 52– 71.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Rothery, D.A., Oppenheimer, C., Sherman,
S.B., 1999. Mass flux measurements at active lava lakes:
implications for magma recycling. Journal of Geophysical Research
104, 7117– 7136.
Harris, A.J.L., Flynn, L.P., Dean, K., Pilger, E., Wooster, M.J.,
Okubo, C., Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Garbeil, H., Thornbern, C.,
De la Cruz-Reyna, S., Rothery, D.A., Wright, R., 2000a. Real-time monitoring of volcanic hot-spots with satellites. Remote
Sensing of Active Volcanism, AGU Geophysical Monograph
Series 116, 139– 159.
Harris, A.J.L., Murray, J.B., Aries, S.E., Davies, M.A., Flynn, L.P.,
Wooster, M.J., Wright, R., Rothery, D.A., 2000b. Effusion rate
trends at Etna and Krafta and their implications for eruptive
mechanisms. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
102, 237–269.
Kilburn, C.R.J., 1990. Surface of aa flow-fields on Mt. Etna, Sicily:
morphology, rheology, crystallization and scaling phenomena.
In: Fink, J.H. (Ed.), IAVCEI Proceedings in Volcanology, vol. 2:
Lava Flows and Domes—Emplacement Mechanisms and Hazard
Implications. Springer, Berlin, pp. 129– 156.
Kilburn, C.R.J., 1993. Lava crusts, aa flow lengthening and the
pahoehoe – aa transition. In: Kilburn, C.R.J., Luongo, G.
(Eds.), Active Lavas: Monitoring and Modelling. UCL Press,
London, pp. 263–280.
Lange, R.A., 1994. Diffusion in volatile-bearing magmas. In:
Carroll, M.R., Holloway, J.R. (Eds.), Volatiles in Magmas.
Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 30. Mineral. Soc. Am., Washington
DC, pp. 331– 369.
Metrich, N., Allard, P., Andronico, D., 2002. Preliminary constraints
on volatile abundances in basalts erupted during the
2001 flank eruption on Mount Etna. Geophysical Research Abstract,
vol. 4, 27th General Assembly, EGS, Nice 2000 (EGS02-
A-06200).
Montone, P., Amato, A., Pondrelli, S., 1999. Active stress map of
Italy. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (B11), 25–595.
Murru, M., Montuori, C., Wyss, M., Privitera, E., 1999. The location
of the magma chambers at Mt. Etna, Italy, mapped by b
values. Geophysical Research Letters 26, 2553–2556.
Oppenheimer, C., 1991. Lava flow cooling estimated from Landsat
Thematic Mapper infrared data: the Lonquimay eruption (Chile,
1989). Journal of Geophysical Research 96, 21865– 21878.
Oppenheimer, C., 1993a. Infrared surveillance of crater lakes using
satellite data. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
55, 117– 128.
Oppenheimer, C., 1993b. Thermal distributions of hot volcanic
surfaces constrained using three infrared bands of remote sensing
data. Geophysical Research Letters 20 (6), 431– 434.
Oppenheimer, C., 1998. Satellite observation of active carbonatite
volcanism at Ol Dionyo Lengai, Tanzania. International Journal
of Remote Sensing 19, 55–64.
Oppenheimer, C., Francis, P.W., Rothery, D.A., Carlton, R.W.T.,
Glaze, L., 1993a. Infrared image analysis of volcanic thermal
features: La`scar Volcano, Chile, 1984– 1992. Journal of Geophysical
Research 98, 4269– 4286.
Oppenheimer, C., Rothery, D.A., Francis, P.W., 1993b. Thermal
distribution at fumarole fields: implications for infrared remote
sensing of active volcanoes. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research 55, 97–115.
Oppenheimer, C., Rothery, D.A., Pieri, D.C., Abrams, M.J., Carrere,
V., 1993c. Analysis of Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer (AVIRIS) data of volcanic hot spots. International
Journal of Remote Sensing 14 (16), 2919–2934.
Pieri, D.C., Buongiorno, M.F., in prep. Systematic summit crater
radiance increase as seen in Landsat TM data before the 1991–
93 eruption on Mt. Etna. Under review. Journal of Volcanology
and Geothermal Research.
Pieri, D.C., Glaze, L.S., Abrams, M.J., 1990. Thermal radiance
observation of an active lava flow during the June 1984 eruption
of Mt. Etna. Geology 18, 1018–1022.
Pinkerton, H., Stevenson, R.J., 1992. Methods of determining the
rheological properties of magmas at sub-liquidus temperatures.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 53, 47– 66.
Rittmann, A., Romano, R., Sturiale, C., 1973. Some considerations
on the 1971 Etna eruption and on the tectonophysics of the
Mediterranean area. Geologische Rundschau 62, 418– 430.
Romano, R., Sturiale, C., 1982. The historical eruptions of Mount
Etna (volcanological data). Memorie della Societa Geologica
Italiana 23, 75– 97.
Romano, R., Vaccaro, C., 1986. The recent eruptive activity on
Mt. Etna Sicily, 1981–1985. Periodico di Mineralogia 55,
91– 111.
Rothery, D.A., Francis, P.W., Wood, C.A., 1988. Volcano monitoring
using short wavelength infrared data from satellite. Journal
of Geophysical Research 93, 7993– 8008.
Rothery, D.A., Borgia, A., Carlton, R.W., Oppenheimer, C., 1992.
The 1992 Etna lava flow imaged by Landsat TM. International
Journal of Remote Sensing 13, 2759– 2763.
Trigila, R., Spera, F.J., Aurisicchio, C., 1990. The 1983 Mount Etna
eruption: thermochemical and dynamical inferences. Contributions
to Mineralogy and Petrology 104, 594–608.
Wadge, G., 1978. Effusion rate and the shape of aa lava flow-fields
on Mount Etna. Geology 6, 503– 506.
Walker, G.P.L., 1973. Lenght of lava flows. Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society of London. A 274, 107– 118.
Watson, E.B., 1994. Diffusion in volatile-bearing magmas. In:
Carroll, M.R., Holloway, J.R. (Eds.), Volatiles in Magmas.
Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 30. Mineral. Soc. Am., Washington
DC, pp. 372– 411.
Wooster, M.J., Kaneko, T., Nakada, S., Shimizu, H., 2000. Discimination
of lava dome activity styles using satellite-derived
thermal structurs. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
102, 97– 118.
Wright, R., Flynn, P.F., Harris, A.J.L., 2001. Evolution of lava
flow-fields at Mount Etna, 27–28 October 1999, observed by
Landsat 7 ETM+ . Bulletin Volcanologique 63, 1– 7.
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