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Dynamics of magma ascent and fragmentation in trachytic versus rhyolitic eruptions
Author(s)
Language
English
Status
Published
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
1-2/131(2004)
Publisher
Elsevier
Pages (printed)
93-108
Issued date
March 15, 2004
Abstract
We have performed a parametric study on the dynamics of trachytic (alkaline) versus rhyolitic (calc-alkaline) eruptions by employing a steady, isothermal, multiphase non-equilibrium model of conduit flow and fragmentation. The employed compositions correspond to a typical rhyolite and to trachytic liquids from Phlegrean Fields eruptions, for which detailed viscosity measurements have been performed. The investigated conditions include conduit diameters in the range 30–90 m and total water contents from 2 to 6 wt%, corresponding to mass flow rates in the range 106–108 kg/s. The numerical results show that rhyolites fragment deep in the conduit and at a gas volume fraction ranging from 0.64 to 0.76, while for trachytes fragmentation is found to occur at much shallower levels and higher vesicularities (0.81–0.85). An unexpected result is that low-viscosity trachytes can be associated with lower mass flow rates with respect to more viscous rhyolites. This is due to the non-linear combined effects of viscosity and water solubility affecting the whole eruption dynamics. The lower viscosity of trachytes, together with higher water solubility, results in delayed fragmentation, or in a longer bubbly flow region within the conduit where viscous forces are dominant. Therefore, the total dissipation due to viscous forces can be higher for the less viscous trachytic magma, depending on the specific conditions and trachytic composition employed. The fragmentation conditions determined through the simulations agree with measured vesicularities in natural pumice clasts of both magma compositions. In fact, vesicularities average 0.80 in pumice from alkaline eruptions at Phlegrean Fields, while they tend to be lower in most calc-alkaline pumices. The results of numerical simulations suggest that higher vesicularities in alkaline products are related to delayed fragmentation of magmas with this composition. Despite large differences in the distribution of flow variables which occur in the deep conduit region and at fragmentation, the flow dynamics of rhyolites and trachytes in the upper conduit and at the vent can be very similar, at equal conduit size and total water content. This is consistent with similar phenomenologies of eruptions associated with the two magma types.
References
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Carroll, M., Blank J., "The solubility of water in phonolitic melts", Am. Mineral., Volume: 82, (1997), pp. 549-556
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Cioni, R., Marianelli, P., Santacroce, R., Sbrana, A., 2000. Plinian and Subplinian eruptions. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA, pp. 477–494.
Clarke, A.B., Voight B., Neri A., Macedonio G., "Transient dynamics of vulcanian explosions and column collapse", Nature, Volume: 415, (2002), pp. 897-901 CrossRef
de Vita, S., Orsi G., Civetta A., Carandente A., D´Antonio M., Deino A., di Cesare T., Di Vito M.A., Fisher R.V., Isaia R., Marotta E., Necco A., Ort M., Pappalardo L., Piochi M., Southon J., "The Agnano Monte Spina eruption (4100 years BP) in the restless Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy)", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 269-301 Bibliographic Page Full text
Dingwell, D.B., Hess K.U., Romano C., "Viscosity data for hydrous peraluminous granitic melts; comparison with a metaluminous model", Am. Mineral., Volume: 83, (1998), pp. 236-239
Di Vito, M.A., Isaia R., Orsi G., Southon J., de Vita S., D´Antonio M., Pappalardo L., Piochi M., "Volcanism and deformation since 12000 years at the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy)", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 221-246 Bibliographic Page Full text
Dobran, F., "Non-equilibrium flow in volcanic conduits and applications to the eruptions of Mt. St. Helens on May 18, 1980, and Vesuvius in AD 79", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 49, (1992), pp. 285-311 CrossRef
Dobran, F., 2001. Volcanic Processes: Mechanisms in Material Transport. Kluwer Academic, New York.
Dobran, F., Neri A., Todesco M., "Assessing pyroclastic flow hazard at Vesuvius", Nature, Volume: 367, (1994), pp. 551-554 CrossRef
Freundt, A., Rosi, M., 1998. From Magma to Tephra. Springer, Berlin.
Fulcher, G.S., "Analysis of recent measurements of the viscosity of glasses", Am. Ceram. Soc. J., Volume: 8, (1925), pp. 339-355
Gardner, J.E., Thomas R.M.E., Jaupart C., Tait S.R., "Fragmentation of magma during Plinian volcanic eruptions", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 58, (1996), pp. 144-162 Bibliographic Page
Gilbert, J.S., Sparks, R.S.J., 1998. The Physics of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions. The Geological Society, London.
Giordano, D., Romano, C., Papale, P., Dingwell, D.B., 2003. Viscosity of trachytes from Phlegrean Fields, and comparison with basaltic, phonolitic, and rhyolitic melts. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., in review.
Gurioli, L., Houghton, B., Cashman, K., Cioni, R., 2003. Complex changes in eruption dynamics and the transition between Plinian and phreatomagmatic activity during the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius. Bull. Volcanol., in review.
Hess, K.-U., Dingwell D.B., "Viscosities of hydrous leucogranitic melts: A non-Arrhenian model", Am. Mineral., Volume: 81, (1996), pp. 1297-1300
Innocenti, Innocenti, F., Manetti, P., Mazzuoli, R., Pasquarè, G., Villari, L., 1982. Anatolia and North-western Iran. In: Thorpe, R.S. (Ed.), Andesites. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 327–349.
Klug, C., Cashman K.V., "Permeability development in vesiculating magmas: implications for fragmentations", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 58, (1996), pp. 87-101
Klug, C., Cashman K.V., Bacon C.R., "Structure and physical characteristics of pumice from the climactic eruption of Mt Mazama (Crater Lake), Oregon", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 486-501 CrossRef
Lange, R.A., "The effects of H2O, CO2 and F on the density and viscosity of silicate melts", Mineral. Soc. Am. Rev. Mineral., Volume: 30, (1994), pp. 331-369
Lange, R.A., Carmichael I.S.E., "Densities of Na2O–K2O–CaO–MgO–FeO–Fe2O3–Al2O3–TiO2–SiO2 liquids: new measurements and derived partial molar properties", Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Volume: 53, (1987), pp. 2195-2204
Maxwell, J.C., "On the dynamical theory of gases", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, Volume: 157, (1867), pp. 49-88
Melnik, O., "Dynamics of two-phase conduit flow of high viscosity gas-saturated magma: large variations of sustained explosive eruptions intensity", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 62, (2001), pp. 153-170
Melnik, O., Sparks R.S.J., "Nonlinear dynamics of lava dome extrusion", Nature, Volume: 40, (1999), pp. 37-41
Middlemost, E.A.K., "Iron oxidation ratios, norms and the classification of volcanic rocks", Chem. Geol., Volume: 77, (1989), pp. 19-26 CrossRef
Neri, A., Papale P., Macedonio G., "The role of magma composition and water content in esplosive eruptions: II. Pyroclastic dispersion dynamics", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 87, (1998), pp. 95-115 Bibliographic Page Full text
Neri, A., Papale P., Del Seppia D., Santacroce R., "Couplet conduit and atmospheric dispersal dynamics of the AD 79 Plinian eruption of Vesuvius", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 120, (2003), pp. 141-160 Bibliographic Page Full text
Ongaro, T., Neri A., Todesco M., Macedonio G., "Pyroclastic flow hazard assessment at Vesuvius (Italy) by using numerical modeling. II. Analysis of flow variables", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 178-191 CrossRef
Papale, P., "Thermodynamic modelling of the solubility of H2O and CO2 in silicate liquids", Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., Volume: 126, (1997), pp. 237-251 Bibliographic Page Full text
Papale, P., "Strain-induced magma fragmentation in explosive eruptions", Nature, Volume: 397, (1999), pp. 425-428 CrossRef
Papale, P., "Modeling of the solubility of a two-component H2O+CO2 fluid in silicate liquids", Am. Mineral., Volume: 84, (1999), pp. 477-492
Papale, P., "The dynamics of magma flow in volcanic conduits with variable fragmentation efficiency and non-equilibrium pumice degassing", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 106, (2001), pp. 11043-11065
Papale, P., Dobran F., "Modeling the ascent of magma during the Plinian eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 58, (1993), pp. 101-132 CrossRef
Papale, P., Dobran F., "Magma flow along the volcanic conduit during the plinian and pyroclastic flow phases of the May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens eruption", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 99, (1994), pp. 4355-4373
Papale, P., Polacci M., "Role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 60, (1999), pp. 583-594 Bibliographic Page Full text
Papale, P., Neri A., Macedonio G., "The role of magma composition and water contents in explosive eruptions. I. Conduit ascent dynamics", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 87, (1998), pp. 75-93 Bibliographic Page Full text
Pinel, Pinel, V., Jaupart, C., 2003. Magma chamber behavior beneath a volcanic edifice. J. Geophys. Res. 102, DOI 10.1029/2002JB001751.
Polacci, M., Papale P., Rosi M., "Textural heterogeneities in pumices from the climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo, 15 June 1991, and implications for magma ascent dynamics", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 63, (2001), pp. 83-97 CrossRef
Polacci, Polacci, M., Pioli, L., Rosi, M., 2003. The Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Phlegrean Fields, Italy): evidence from density measurements and textural characterization of pumice. Bull. Volcanol. 65, 418–432, DOI 10.1007/S00445-002-0268-4.
Romano, C., Giordano, D., Papale, P., Mincione, V., Hess, K.U., Dingwell, D.B., Rosi, M., 2003. The viscosities of hydrous melts from Vesuvius and Phlegrean Fields systems. Chem. Geol., in press.
Rosi, Rosi, M., Landi, P., Polacci, M., Di Muro, A., Zandomeneghi, D., 2003. Role of conduit shear on ascent of the crystal-rich magma feeding the 800 yr BP Plinian eruption of Quilotoa Volcano (Ecuador). Bull. Volcanol., DOI 10.1007/S00445-003-0312-Z.
Signorelli, S., Vaggelli G., Francalanci L., Rosi M., "Origin of magmas feeding the Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Phlegrean Fields Italy: constraints based on matrix-glass and glass-inclusion compositions", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 199-220 Bibliographic Page Full text
Signorelli, S., Vaggelli G., Romano C., Carroll M.R., "Volatile element zonation in Campanian Ignimbrite magmas (Phlegrean Fields, Italy): evidence from the study of glass inclusions and matrix glasses", Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., Volume: 140, (2001), pp. 543-553
Sigurdsson, H., 2000. Introduction. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA, pp. 1–13.
Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer H., Stix J., 2000. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA.
Tammann, G., Hesse W., "Die Abhängigkeit der Viskosität von der Temperatur bei unterkühlten Flüssigkeiten", Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem., Volume: 156, (1926), pp. 245-257 CrossRef
Todesco, M., Neri A., Esposti Ongaro T., Papale P., Macedonio G., Santacroce R., Longo A., "Pyroclastic flow hazard assessment at Vesuvius (Italy) by using numerical modelling. Large-scale dynamics", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 155-177
Vogel, D.H., "Temperaturabhängigkeitsgesetz der Viskosität von Flüssigkeiten", Phys. Z., Volume: 22, (1921), pp. 645-646
Webb, S.L., Dingwell D.B., "Non-Newtonian rheology of igneous melts at high stresses and strain rates: experimental results for rhyolite, andesite, basalt and nephelinite", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 95, (1990), pp. 15695-15701
Wilson, C.J.N., Houghton, B.F., 2000. Pyroclastic transport and deposition. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 545–554.
Carroll, M., Blank J., "The solubility of water in phonolitic melts", Am. Mineral., Volume: 82, (1997), pp. 549-556
Cas, R.A.F., Wright, J., 1987. Volcanic Successions – Modern and Ancient, Chapman and Hall, New York.
Cioni, R., Marianelli, P., Santacroce, R., Sbrana, A., 2000. Plinian and Subplinian eruptions. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA, pp. 477–494.
Clarke, A.B., Voight B., Neri A., Macedonio G., "Transient dynamics of vulcanian explosions and column collapse", Nature, Volume: 415, (2002), pp. 897-901 CrossRef
de Vita, S., Orsi G., Civetta A., Carandente A., D´Antonio M., Deino A., di Cesare T., Di Vito M.A., Fisher R.V., Isaia R., Marotta E., Necco A., Ort M., Pappalardo L., Piochi M., Southon J., "The Agnano Monte Spina eruption (4100 years BP) in the restless Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy)", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 269-301 Bibliographic Page Full text
Dingwell, D.B., Hess K.U., Romano C., "Viscosity data for hydrous peraluminous granitic melts; comparison with a metaluminous model", Am. Mineral., Volume: 83, (1998), pp. 236-239
Di Vito, M.A., Isaia R., Orsi G., Southon J., de Vita S., D´Antonio M., Pappalardo L., Piochi M., "Volcanism and deformation since 12000 years at the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy)", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 221-246 Bibliographic Page Full text
Dobran, F., "Non-equilibrium flow in volcanic conduits and applications to the eruptions of Mt. St. Helens on May 18, 1980, and Vesuvius in AD 79", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 49, (1992), pp. 285-311 CrossRef
Dobran, F., 2001. Volcanic Processes: Mechanisms in Material Transport. Kluwer Academic, New York.
Dobran, F., Neri A., Todesco M., "Assessing pyroclastic flow hazard at Vesuvius", Nature, Volume: 367, (1994), pp. 551-554 CrossRef
Freundt, A., Rosi, M., 1998. From Magma to Tephra. Springer, Berlin.
Fulcher, G.S., "Analysis of recent measurements of the viscosity of glasses", Am. Ceram. Soc. J., Volume: 8, (1925), pp. 339-355
Gardner, J.E., Thomas R.M.E., Jaupart C., Tait S.R., "Fragmentation of magma during Plinian volcanic eruptions", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 58, (1996), pp. 144-162 Bibliographic Page
Gilbert, J.S., Sparks, R.S.J., 1998. The Physics of Explosive Volcanic Eruptions. The Geological Society, London.
Giordano, D., Romano, C., Papale, P., Dingwell, D.B., 2003. Viscosity of trachytes from Phlegrean Fields, and comparison with basaltic, phonolitic, and rhyolitic melts. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., in review.
Gurioli, L., Houghton, B., Cashman, K., Cioni, R., 2003. Complex changes in eruption dynamics and the transition between Plinian and phreatomagmatic activity during the 79 AD eruption of Vesuvius. Bull. Volcanol., in review.
Hess, K.-U., Dingwell D.B., "Viscosities of hydrous leucogranitic melts: A non-Arrhenian model", Am. Mineral., Volume: 81, (1996), pp. 1297-1300
Innocenti, Innocenti, F., Manetti, P., Mazzuoli, R., Pasquarè, G., Villari, L., 1982. Anatolia and North-western Iran. In: Thorpe, R.S. (Ed.), Andesites. Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 327–349.
Klug, C., Cashman K.V., "Permeability development in vesiculating magmas: implications for fragmentations", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 58, (1996), pp. 87-101
Klug, C., Cashman K.V., Bacon C.R., "Structure and physical characteristics of pumice from the climactic eruption of Mt Mazama (Crater Lake), Oregon", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 486-501 CrossRef
Lange, R.A., "The effects of H2O, CO2 and F on the density and viscosity of silicate melts", Mineral. Soc. Am. Rev. Mineral., Volume: 30, (1994), pp. 331-369
Lange, R.A., Carmichael I.S.E., "Densities of Na2O–K2O–CaO–MgO–FeO–Fe2O3–Al2O3–TiO2–SiO2 liquids: new measurements and derived partial molar properties", Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Volume: 53, (1987), pp. 2195-2204
Maxwell, J.C., "On the dynamical theory of gases", Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, Volume: 157, (1867), pp. 49-88
Melnik, O., "Dynamics of two-phase conduit flow of high viscosity gas-saturated magma: large variations of sustained explosive eruptions intensity", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 62, (2001), pp. 153-170
Melnik, O., Sparks R.S.J., "Nonlinear dynamics of lava dome extrusion", Nature, Volume: 40, (1999), pp. 37-41
Middlemost, E.A.K., "Iron oxidation ratios, norms and the classification of volcanic rocks", Chem. Geol., Volume: 77, (1989), pp. 19-26 CrossRef
Neri, A., Papale P., Macedonio G., "The role of magma composition and water content in esplosive eruptions: II. Pyroclastic dispersion dynamics", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 87, (1998), pp. 95-115 Bibliographic Page Full text
Neri, A., Papale P., Del Seppia D., Santacroce R., "Couplet conduit and atmospheric dispersal dynamics of the AD 79 Plinian eruption of Vesuvius", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 120, (2003), pp. 141-160 Bibliographic Page Full text
Ongaro, T., Neri A., Todesco M., Macedonio G., "Pyroclastic flow hazard assessment at Vesuvius (Italy) by using numerical modeling. II. Analysis of flow variables", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 178-191 CrossRef
Papale, P., "Thermodynamic modelling of the solubility of H2O and CO2 in silicate liquids", Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., Volume: 126, (1997), pp. 237-251 Bibliographic Page Full text
Papale, P., "Strain-induced magma fragmentation in explosive eruptions", Nature, Volume: 397, (1999), pp. 425-428 CrossRef
Papale, P., "Modeling of the solubility of a two-component H2O+CO2 fluid in silicate liquids", Am. Mineral., Volume: 84, (1999), pp. 477-492
Papale, P., "The dynamics of magma flow in volcanic conduits with variable fragmentation efficiency and non-equilibrium pumice degassing", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 106, (2001), pp. 11043-11065
Papale, P., Dobran F., "Modeling the ascent of magma during the Plinian eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 58, (1993), pp. 101-132 CrossRef
Papale, P., Dobran F., "Magma flow along the volcanic conduit during the plinian and pyroclastic flow phases of the May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens eruption", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 99, (1994), pp. 4355-4373
Papale, P., Polacci M., "Role of carbon dioxide in the dynamics of magma ascent in explosive eruptions", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 60, (1999), pp. 583-594 Bibliographic Page Full text
Papale, P., Neri A., Macedonio G., "The role of magma composition and water contents in explosive eruptions. I. Conduit ascent dynamics", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 87, (1998), pp. 75-93 Bibliographic Page Full text
Pinel, Pinel, V., Jaupart, C., 2003. Magma chamber behavior beneath a volcanic edifice. J. Geophys. Res. 102, DOI 10.1029/2002JB001751.
Polacci, M., Papale P., Rosi M., "Textural heterogeneities in pumices from the climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo, 15 June 1991, and implications for magma ascent dynamics", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 63, (2001), pp. 83-97 CrossRef
Polacci, Polacci, M., Pioli, L., Rosi, M., 2003. The Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Phlegrean Fields, Italy): evidence from density measurements and textural characterization of pumice. Bull. Volcanol. 65, 418–432, DOI 10.1007/S00445-002-0268-4.
Romano, C., Giordano, D., Papale, P., Mincione, V., Hess, K.U., Dingwell, D.B., Rosi, M., 2003. The viscosities of hydrous melts from Vesuvius and Phlegrean Fields systems. Chem. Geol., in press.
Rosi, Rosi, M., Landi, P., Polacci, M., Di Muro, A., Zandomeneghi, D., 2003. Role of conduit shear on ascent of the crystal-rich magma feeding the 800 yr BP Plinian eruption of Quilotoa Volcano (Ecuador). Bull. Volcanol., DOI 10.1007/S00445-003-0312-Z.
Signorelli, S., Vaggelli G., Francalanci L., Rosi M., "Origin of magmas feeding the Plinian phase of the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Phlegrean Fields Italy: constraints based on matrix-glass and glass-inclusion compositions", J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., Volume: 91, (1999), pp. 199-220 Bibliographic Page Full text
Signorelli, S., Vaggelli G., Romano C., Carroll M.R., "Volatile element zonation in Campanian Ignimbrite magmas (Phlegrean Fields, Italy): evidence from the study of glass inclusions and matrix glasses", Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., Volume: 140, (2001), pp. 543-553
Sigurdsson, H., 2000. Introduction. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA, pp. 1–13.
Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer H., Stix J., 2000. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic press, San Diego, CA.
Tammann, G., Hesse W., "Die Abhängigkeit der Viskosität von der Temperatur bei unterkühlten Flüssigkeiten", Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem., Volume: 156, (1926), pp. 245-257 CrossRef
Todesco, M., Neri A., Esposti Ongaro T., Papale P., Macedonio G., Santacroce R., Longo A., "Pyroclastic flow hazard assessment at Vesuvius (Italy) by using numerical modelling. Large-scale dynamics", Bull. Volcanol., Volume: 64, (2002), pp. 155-177
Vogel, D.H., "Temperaturabhängigkeitsgesetz der Viskosität von Flüssigkeiten", Phys. Z., Volume: 22, (1921), pp. 645-646
Webb, S.L., Dingwell D.B., "Non-Newtonian rheology of igneous melts at high stresses and strain rates: experimental results for rhyolite, andesite, basalt and nephelinite", J. Geophys. Res., Volume: 95, (1990), pp. 15695-15701
Wilson, C.J.N., Houghton, B.F., 2000. Pyroclastic transport and deposition. In: Sigurdsson, H., Houghton, B.F., McNutt, S.R., Rymer, H., Stix, J. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 545–554.
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