Effect of surface albedo, water vapour, and atmospheric aerosols on the cloud-free shortwave radiative budget in the Arctic
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
1.10. TTC - Telerilevamento
3.7. Dinamica del clima e dell'oceano
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Journal
Issue/vol(year)
3-4 / 39 (2012)
ISSN
0930-7575
Electronic ISSN
1432-0894
Publisher
Springer Verlag GMBH Germany
Pages (printed)
953-969
Date Issued
2012
Abstract
This study is based on ground-based measurements of downward surface shortwave irradiance (SW), columnar water vapour (wv), and aerosol optical depth (s) obtained at Thule Air Base (Greenland) in 2007–2010,
together with MODIS observations of the surface shortwave albedo (A). Radiative transfer model calculations are used
in combination with measurements to separate the radiative effect of A (∆SWA), wv (DSWwv), and aerosols (∆SWs) in modulating SW in cloud-free conditions. The shortwave
radiation at the surface is mainly affected by water vapour absorption, which produces a reduction of SW as low as -100 Wm-2 (-18%). The seasonal change of A produces an increase of SW by up to +25 Wm-2 (+4.5%). The
annual mean radiative effect is estimated to be -(21–22) Wm-2 for wv, and +(2–3) Wm-2 for A. An increase by +0.065 cm in the annual mean wv, to which corresponds an absolute increase in ∆SWwv by 0.93 Wm-2 (4.3%), has been observed to occur between 2007 and 2010.
In the same period, the annual mean A has decreased by -0.027, with a corresponding decrease in ∆SWA by 0.41 Wm-2 (-14.9%). Atmospheric aerosols produce a reduction of SW as low as -32 Wm-2 (-6.7%). The
instantaneous aerosol radiative forcing (RFs) reaches values of -28 Wm-2 and shows a strong dependency on surface albedo. The derived radiative forcing efficiency (FEs) for solar zenith angles between 55 and 70 is estimated to be (-120.6 ± 4.3) for 0.1<A<0.2, and (-41.2 ± 1.6) Wm-2 for 0.5<A<0.6.
together with MODIS observations of the surface shortwave albedo (A). Radiative transfer model calculations are used
in combination with measurements to separate the radiative effect of A (∆SWA), wv (DSWwv), and aerosols (∆SWs) in modulating SW in cloud-free conditions. The shortwave
radiation at the surface is mainly affected by water vapour absorption, which produces a reduction of SW as low as -100 Wm-2 (-18%). The seasonal change of A produces an increase of SW by up to +25 Wm-2 (+4.5%). The
annual mean radiative effect is estimated to be -(21–22) Wm-2 for wv, and +(2–3) Wm-2 for A. An increase by +0.065 cm in the annual mean wv, to which corresponds an absolute increase in ∆SWwv by 0.93 Wm-2 (4.3%), has been observed to occur between 2007 and 2010.
In the same period, the annual mean A has decreased by -0.027, with a corresponding decrease in ∆SWA by 0.41 Wm-2 (-14.9%). Atmospheric aerosols produce a reduction of SW as low as -32 Wm-2 (-6.7%). The
instantaneous aerosol radiative forcing (RFs) reaches values of -28 Wm-2 and shows a strong dependency on surface albedo. The derived radiative forcing efficiency (FEs) for solar zenith angles between 55 and 70 is estimated to be (-120.6 ± 4.3) for 0.1<A<0.2, and (-41.2 ± 1.6) Wm-2 for 0.5<A<0.6.
References
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aerosols measured in spring 2008 during the aerosol, radiation,
and cloud processes affecting Arctic climate (ARCPAC) project.
Atmos Chem Phys Discuss 10:27361–27434
Conant WC (2000) An observational approach for determining
aerosol surface radiative forcing: results from the first field phase
of INDOEX. J Geophys Res 105:15347–15360
Curry JA, Schramm JL, Ebert EE (1995a) Sea ice-albedo climate
feedback mechanism. J Clim 8:240–247
Curry JA, Schramm JL, Serreze MC, Ebert EE (1995b) Water vapor
feedback over the Arctic Ocean. J Geophys Res 100:223–229
de Villiers RA, Ancellet G, Pelon J, Quennehen B, Schwarzenboeck
A, Gayet JF, Law KS (2010) Airborne measurements of aerosol
optical properties related to early spring transport of mid-latitude
sources into the Arctic. Atmos Chem Phys 10:5011–5030
Dong X, Xi B, Crosby K, Long CN, Stone R (2010) A 10-yr
climatology of arctic cloud properties and surface radiation
budget derived from ground-based observations at ARM NSA
site and NOAA barrow observatory. J Geophys Res D12124. doi:
10.1029/2009JD013489
Dubovik O, King MD (2000) A flexible inversion algorithm for
retrieval of aerosol optical properties from Sun and sky radiance
measurements. J Geophys Res 105:20673–20696
Eck TF et al (2009) Optical properties of boreal region biomass
burning aerosols in central Alaska and seasonal variation of
aerosol optical depth at an Arctic coastal site. J Geophys Res
114:D11201. doi:10.1029/2008JD010870
Engvall AC, Stro¨m J, Tunved P, Krejci R, Schlager H, Minikin A
(2009) The radiative effect of an aged, internally mixed Arctic
aerosol originating from lower-latitude biomass burning. Tellus
B 61:677–684
Generoso S, Bey I, Attie´ JL, Bre´on FM (2007) A satellite- and modelbased
assessment of the 2003 Russian fires: impact on the Arctic
region. J Geophys Res 112:D15302. doi:10.1029/2006JD008344
Grenfell TC, Perovich DK (2008) Incident spectral irradiance in the
Arctic Basin during the summer and fall. J Geophys Res
113:D12117. doi:10.1029/2007JD009418
Hatzianastassiou N, Matsoukas C, Fotiadi A, Pavlakis KG, Drakakis
E, Hatzidimitriou D, Vardavas I (2005) Global distribution of
Earth’s surface shortwave radiation budget. Atmos Chem Phys
5:2847–2867 Holben BN, Eck TF, Slutsker I, Tanre D, Buis JP, Setzer A, Vermote
E, Reagan JA, Kaufman Y, Nakajima T, Lavenu F, Jankowiak I,
Smirnov A (1998) AERONET: a federated instrument network
and data archive for aerosol characterization. Rem Sens Environ
66:1–16
Inoue J, Kikuchi T, Perovich TK, Morison JH (2005) A drop in midsummer
shortwave radiation induced by changes in the icesurface
condition in the central Arctic. Geophys Res Lett
32:L13603. doi:10.1029/2005GL023170
Intrieri J, Shupe M, Uttal T, McCarty B (2002) An annual cycle of
Arctic cloud characteristics observed by radar and lidar at
SHEBA. J Geophys Res 107. doi:10.1029/2000JC000423
IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental panel on climate change, fourth
assessment report—the physical science basis. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge
Iziomon MG, Lohmann U, Quinn PK (2006) Summertime pollution
events in the Arctic and potential implications. J Geophys Res
111:D12206. doi:10.1029/2005JD006223
Jakobson E, Vihma T (2010) Atmospheric moisture budget in the
Arctic based on the ERA-40 reanalysis. Int J Clim 30:2175–2194
Kurita N (2011) Origin of Arctic water vapor during the ice-growth
season. Geophys Res Lett 38:L02709. doi:10.1029/2010GL
046064
Law KS, Stohl A (2007) Arctic air pollution: origins and impacts.
Science 315:1537–1540
Lindsay RW, Zhang J (2005) The thinning of arctic sea ice, 1988–2003:
have we passed a tipping point? J Climate 18:4879–4894
Lindsay RW, Zhang J, Schweiger AJ, Steele MA (2008) Seasonal
predictions of ice extent in the Arctic Ocean. J Geophys Res
113:C02023. doi:10.1029/2007JC004259
Liu J, Schaaf C, Strahler A, Jiao Z, Shuai Y, Zhang Q, Roman M,
Augustine JA, Dutton EG (2009) Validation of moderate
resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) albedo retrieval
algorithm: dependence of albedo on solar zenith angle. J Geophys
Res 114. doi:10.1029/2008JD009969
Long CN, Ackerman TP (2000) Identification of clear skies from
broadband pyranometer measurements and calculation of downwelling,
shortwave cloud effects. J Geophys Res 105:609–626
Markus T, Stroeve JC, Miller J (2009) Recent changes in Arctic sea
ice melt onset, freezeup, and melt season length. J Geophys Res
114:C12024. doi:10.1029/2009JC005436
McGuire AD, Chapin FS III, Walsh JE, Wirth C (2006) Integrated
regional changes in Arctic climate feedbacks: implications for
the global climate system. Annu Rev Environ Resour 31:61–91
Meloni D, di Sarra A, Biavati G, DeLuisi JJ, Monteleone F, Pace G,
Piacentino S, Sferlazzo D (2007) Seasonal behavior of Saharan
dust events at the Mediterranean island of Lampedusa in the
period 1999–2005. Atmos Environ 41:3041–3056
Perovich D, Meier W, Maslanik J, Richter-Menge J (2010) Sea ice
cover. In: Arctic Report Card 2010. http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/
reportcard
Porter DF, Cassano JJ, Serreze MC, Kindig DN (2010) New estimates
of the large-scale Arctic atmospheric energy budget. J Geophys
Res 115. doi:10.1029/2009JD012653
Quinn PK, Shaw G, Andrews E, Dutton EG, Ruoho-Airola T, Gong
SL (2007) Arctic haze: current trends and knowledge gaps.
Tellus 59B:99–114
Rinke A, Melsheimer C, Dethloff K, Heygster G (2009) Arctic total
water vapor: comparison of regional climate simulations with
observations, and simulated decadal trends. J Hydrometeor
10:113–129
SchaafCBet al (2002) First operational BRDF, albedo nadir reflectance
products from MODIS. Remote Sens Environ 83:135–148
Sedlar et al (2010) A transitioning Arctic surface energy budget: the
impacts of solar zenith angle, surface albedo and cloud radiative
forcing. Clim Dyn. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0937-5 Serreze MC, Francis JA (2006) The Arctic amplification debate. Clim
Change 76:241–264
Serreze MC, Barry RG, Walsh JE (1995) Atmospheric water vapor
characteristics at 70 degrees north. J Clim 8(4):719–731
Shine KP (1984) Shortwave flux over high albedo surfaces. Q J R
Meteorol Soc 110:747–764
Shupe MD, Intrieri JM (2004) Cloud radiative forcing of the Arctic
surface: the influence of cloud properties, surface albedo, and
solar zenith angle. J Clim 17:616–629
Shupe MD, Walden VP, Eloranta E, Uttal T, Campbell JR,
Starkweather SM, Shiobara M (2011) Clouds at Arctic atmospheric
observatories. Part I: occurrence and macrophysical
properties. J Appl Meteor Climatol 50:626–644
Smirnov A, Holben BN, Eck TF, Dubovik O, Slutsker I (2000) Cloud
screening and 495 quality control algorithms for the AERONET
data base. Remote Sens Environ 73:337–349
Stamnes K, Tsay SC, Wiscombe W, Jayaweera K (1988) Numerically
stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative transfer
in multiple scattering and emitting layered media. Appl Opt
27:2502–2509
Stone RS, Anderson GP, Shettle EP, Andrews E, Loukachine K,
Dutton EG, Schaaf C, Roman III MO (2008) Radiative impact of
boreal smoke in the Arctic: observed and modelled. J Geophys
Res 113: D14S16. doi:10.1029/2007JD009657
Stone RS et al (2010) A three dimensional characterization of Arctic
aerosols from airborne Sun photometer observations: PAMARCMIP,
April 2009. J Geophys Res 115:D13203. doi:
10.1029/2009JD013605
Stroeve J, Box JE, Gao F, Liang S, Nolin A, Schaaf C (2005)
Accuracy assessment of the MODIS 16-day albedo product for
snow: comparisons with Greenland in situ measurements.
Remote Sens Environ 94:46–60
Stroeve J, Holland MM, Meier W, Scambos T, Serreze M (2007)
Arctic sea ice decline: faster than forecast. Geophys Res Lett
34:L09501. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703
Stroeve JC, Maslanik J, Serreze MC, Rigor I, Meier W, Fowler C
(2011) Sea ice response to an extreme negative phase of the
Arctic Oscillation during winter 2009/2010. Geophys Res Lett
38:L02502. doi:10.1029/2010GL045662
Tomasi C et al (2007) Aerosols in polar regions: a historical overview
based on optical depth and in situ observations. J Geophys Res
112:D16205. doi:10.1029/2007JD008432
Treffeisen R, Rinke A, Fortmann M, Dethloff K, Herber A,
Yamanouchi T (2005) A case study of the radiative effects of
Arctic aerosols in March 2000. Atmos Environ 39:899–911
Trenberth KE, Fasullo J, Smith L (2005) Trends and variability in
column-integrated atmospheric water vapour. Clim Dyn
24:741–758
Wang XJ, Key JR (2003) Recent trends in Arctic surface, cloud, and
radiation properties from space. Science 299:1725–1728
Warneke C et al (2009) Biomass burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as
an important source for haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April
2008. Geophys Res Lett 36:L02813. doi:10.1029/2008GL036194
Warneke C et al (2010) An important contribution to springtime
Arctic aerosol from biomass burning in Russia. Geophys Res
Lett 37:L01801. doi:10.1029/2009GL041816
Wendler G, Moore B, Hartmann B, Stuefer M, Flint R (2004) Effects of
multiple reflection and albedo on the net radiation in the pack ice
zones of Antarctica. J Geophys Res 109:D06113. doi:10.1029/
2003JD003927
Wyser K et al (2008) An evaluation of Arctic cloud and radiation
processes during the SHEBA year: simulation results from eight
Arctic regional climate models. Clim Dyn 30:203–223
Zuidema P, Joyce R (2008) Water vapor, cloud liquid water paths,
and rain rates over northern high latitude open seas. J Geophys
Res 113:D05205. doi:10.1029/2007JD009040
assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Berk A, Anderson GP, Acharya PK, Hoke ML, Chetwind JH,
Bernstein LS et al (1998) MODTRAN4 Version 3 Revision 1
User’s Manual, Technical Report. Air Force Research Laboratory,
Hanscom Air Force Base, MA, USA
Bonasoni P et al (2010) Atmospheric brown clouds in the Himalayas:
first two years of continuous observations at the Nepal Climate
Observatory-Pyramid (5079 m). Atmos Chem Phys 10:
7515–7531
Brock CA et al (2010) Characteristics, sources, and transport of
aerosols measured in spring 2008 during the aerosol, radiation,
and cloud processes affecting Arctic climate (ARCPAC) project.
Atmos Chem Phys Discuss 10:27361–27434
Conant WC (2000) An observational approach for determining
aerosol surface radiative forcing: results from the first field phase
of INDOEX. J Geophys Res 105:15347–15360
Curry JA, Schramm JL, Ebert EE (1995a) Sea ice-albedo climate
feedback mechanism. J Clim 8:240–247
Curry JA, Schramm JL, Serreze MC, Ebert EE (1995b) Water vapor
feedback over the Arctic Ocean. J Geophys Res 100:223–229
de Villiers RA, Ancellet G, Pelon J, Quennehen B, Schwarzenboeck
A, Gayet JF, Law KS (2010) Airborne measurements of aerosol
optical properties related to early spring transport of mid-latitude
sources into the Arctic. Atmos Chem Phys 10:5011–5030
Dong X, Xi B, Crosby K, Long CN, Stone R (2010) A 10-yr
climatology of arctic cloud properties and surface radiation
budget derived from ground-based observations at ARM NSA
site and NOAA barrow observatory. J Geophys Res D12124. doi:
10.1029/2009JD013489
Dubovik O, King MD (2000) A flexible inversion algorithm for
retrieval of aerosol optical properties from Sun and sky radiance
measurements. J Geophys Res 105:20673–20696
Eck TF et al (2009) Optical properties of boreal region biomass
burning aerosols in central Alaska and seasonal variation of
aerosol optical depth at an Arctic coastal site. J Geophys Res
114:D11201. doi:10.1029/2008JD010870
Engvall AC, Stro¨m J, Tunved P, Krejci R, Schlager H, Minikin A
(2009) The radiative effect of an aged, internally mixed Arctic
aerosol originating from lower-latitude biomass burning. Tellus
B 61:677–684
Generoso S, Bey I, Attie´ JL, Bre´on FM (2007) A satellite- and modelbased
assessment of the 2003 Russian fires: impact on the Arctic
region. J Geophys Res 112:D15302. doi:10.1029/2006JD008344
Grenfell TC, Perovich DK (2008) Incident spectral irradiance in the
Arctic Basin during the summer and fall. J Geophys Res
113:D12117. doi:10.1029/2007JD009418
Hatzianastassiou N, Matsoukas C, Fotiadi A, Pavlakis KG, Drakakis
E, Hatzidimitriou D, Vardavas I (2005) Global distribution of
Earth’s surface shortwave radiation budget. Atmos Chem Phys
5:2847–2867 Holben BN, Eck TF, Slutsker I, Tanre D, Buis JP, Setzer A, Vermote
E, Reagan JA, Kaufman Y, Nakajima T, Lavenu F, Jankowiak I,
Smirnov A (1998) AERONET: a federated instrument network
and data archive for aerosol characterization. Rem Sens Environ
66:1–16
Inoue J, Kikuchi T, Perovich TK, Morison JH (2005) A drop in midsummer
shortwave radiation induced by changes in the icesurface
condition in the central Arctic. Geophys Res Lett
32:L13603. doi:10.1029/2005GL023170
Intrieri J, Shupe M, Uttal T, McCarty B (2002) An annual cycle of
Arctic cloud characteristics observed by radar and lidar at
SHEBA. J Geophys Res 107. doi:10.1029/2000JC000423
IPCC (2007) Intergovernmental panel on climate change, fourth
assessment report—the physical science basis. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge
Iziomon MG, Lohmann U, Quinn PK (2006) Summertime pollution
events in the Arctic and potential implications. J Geophys Res
111:D12206. doi:10.1029/2005JD006223
Jakobson E, Vihma T (2010) Atmospheric moisture budget in the
Arctic based on the ERA-40 reanalysis. Int J Clim 30:2175–2194
Kurita N (2011) Origin of Arctic water vapor during the ice-growth
season. Geophys Res Lett 38:L02709. doi:10.1029/2010GL
046064
Law KS, Stohl A (2007) Arctic air pollution: origins and impacts.
Science 315:1537–1540
Lindsay RW, Zhang J (2005) The thinning of arctic sea ice, 1988–2003:
have we passed a tipping point? J Climate 18:4879–4894
Lindsay RW, Zhang J, Schweiger AJ, Steele MA (2008) Seasonal
predictions of ice extent in the Arctic Ocean. J Geophys Res
113:C02023. doi:10.1029/2007JC004259
Liu J, Schaaf C, Strahler A, Jiao Z, Shuai Y, Zhang Q, Roman M,
Augustine JA, Dutton EG (2009) Validation of moderate
resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) albedo retrieval
algorithm: dependence of albedo on solar zenith angle. J Geophys
Res 114. doi:10.1029/2008JD009969
Long CN, Ackerman TP (2000) Identification of clear skies from
broadband pyranometer measurements and calculation of downwelling,
shortwave cloud effects. J Geophys Res 105:609–626
Markus T, Stroeve JC, Miller J (2009) Recent changes in Arctic sea
ice melt onset, freezeup, and melt season length. J Geophys Res
114:C12024. doi:10.1029/2009JC005436
McGuire AD, Chapin FS III, Walsh JE, Wirth C (2006) Integrated
regional changes in Arctic climate feedbacks: implications for
the global climate system. Annu Rev Environ Resour 31:61–91
Meloni D, di Sarra A, Biavati G, DeLuisi JJ, Monteleone F, Pace G,
Piacentino S, Sferlazzo D (2007) Seasonal behavior of Saharan
dust events at the Mediterranean island of Lampedusa in the
period 1999–2005. Atmos Environ 41:3041–3056
Perovich D, Meier W, Maslanik J, Richter-Menge J (2010) Sea ice
cover. In: Arctic Report Card 2010. http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/
reportcard
Porter DF, Cassano JJ, Serreze MC, Kindig DN (2010) New estimates
of the large-scale Arctic atmospheric energy budget. J Geophys
Res 115. doi:10.1029/2009JD012653
Quinn PK, Shaw G, Andrews E, Dutton EG, Ruoho-Airola T, Gong
SL (2007) Arctic haze: current trends and knowledge gaps.
Tellus 59B:99–114
Rinke A, Melsheimer C, Dethloff K, Heygster G (2009) Arctic total
water vapor: comparison of regional climate simulations with
observations, and simulated decadal trends. J Hydrometeor
10:113–129
SchaafCBet al (2002) First operational BRDF, albedo nadir reflectance
products from MODIS. Remote Sens Environ 83:135–148
Sedlar et al (2010) A transitioning Arctic surface energy budget: the
impacts of solar zenith angle, surface albedo and cloud radiative
forcing. Clim Dyn. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0937-5 Serreze MC, Francis JA (2006) The Arctic amplification debate. Clim
Change 76:241–264
Serreze MC, Barry RG, Walsh JE (1995) Atmospheric water vapor
characteristics at 70 degrees north. J Clim 8(4):719–731
Shine KP (1984) Shortwave flux over high albedo surfaces. Q J R
Meteorol Soc 110:747–764
Shupe MD, Intrieri JM (2004) Cloud radiative forcing of the Arctic
surface: the influence of cloud properties, surface albedo, and
solar zenith angle. J Clim 17:616–629
Shupe MD, Walden VP, Eloranta E, Uttal T, Campbell JR,
Starkweather SM, Shiobara M (2011) Clouds at Arctic atmospheric
observatories. Part I: occurrence and macrophysical
properties. J Appl Meteor Climatol 50:626–644
Smirnov A, Holben BN, Eck TF, Dubovik O, Slutsker I (2000) Cloud
screening and 495 quality control algorithms for the AERONET
data base. Remote Sens Environ 73:337–349
Stamnes K, Tsay SC, Wiscombe W, Jayaweera K (1988) Numerically
stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative transfer
in multiple scattering and emitting layered media. Appl Opt
27:2502–2509
Stone RS, Anderson GP, Shettle EP, Andrews E, Loukachine K,
Dutton EG, Schaaf C, Roman III MO (2008) Radiative impact of
boreal smoke in the Arctic: observed and modelled. J Geophys
Res 113: D14S16. doi:10.1029/2007JD009657
Stone RS et al (2010) A three dimensional characterization of Arctic
aerosols from airborne Sun photometer observations: PAMARCMIP,
April 2009. J Geophys Res 115:D13203. doi:
10.1029/2009JD013605
Stroeve J, Box JE, Gao F, Liang S, Nolin A, Schaaf C (2005)
Accuracy assessment of the MODIS 16-day albedo product for
snow: comparisons with Greenland in situ measurements.
Remote Sens Environ 94:46–60
Stroeve J, Holland MM, Meier W, Scambos T, Serreze M (2007)
Arctic sea ice decline: faster than forecast. Geophys Res Lett
34:L09501. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703
Stroeve JC, Maslanik J, Serreze MC, Rigor I, Meier W, Fowler C
(2011) Sea ice response to an extreme negative phase of the
Arctic Oscillation during winter 2009/2010. Geophys Res Lett
38:L02502. doi:10.1029/2010GL045662
Tomasi C et al (2007) Aerosols in polar regions: a historical overview
based on optical depth and in situ observations. J Geophys Res
112:D16205. doi:10.1029/2007JD008432
Treffeisen R, Rinke A, Fortmann M, Dethloff K, Herber A,
Yamanouchi T (2005) A case study of the radiative effects of
Arctic aerosols in March 2000. Atmos Environ 39:899–911
Trenberth KE, Fasullo J, Smith L (2005) Trends and variability in
column-integrated atmospheric water vapour. Clim Dyn
24:741–758
Wang XJ, Key JR (2003) Recent trends in Arctic surface, cloud, and
radiation properties from space. Science 299:1725–1728
Warneke C et al (2009) Biomass burning in Siberia and Kazakhstan as
an important source for haze over the Alaskan Arctic in April
2008. Geophys Res Lett 36:L02813. doi:10.1029/2008GL036194
Warneke C et al (2010) An important contribution to springtime
Arctic aerosol from biomass burning in Russia. Geophys Res
Lett 37:L01801. doi:10.1029/2009GL041816
Wendler G, Moore B, Hartmann B, Stuefer M, Flint R (2004) Effects of
multiple reflection and albedo on the net radiation in the pack ice
zones of Antarctica. J Geophys Res 109:D06113. doi:10.1029/
2003JD003927
Wyser K et al (2008) An evaluation of Arctic cloud and radiation
processes during the SHEBA year: simulation results from eight
Arctic regional climate models. Clim Dyn 30:203–223
Zuidema P, Joyce R (2008) Water vapor, cloud liquid water paths,
and rain rates over northern high latitude open seas. J Geophys
Res 113:D05205. doi:10.1029/2007JD009040
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