The pre-Campi Flegrei caldera (>40 ka) explosive volcanic record in the Neapolitan Volcanic Area: New insights from a scientific drilling north of Naples, southern Italy

The oldest volcanism documented in near-vent sections around the Campi Flegrei (CF, southern Italy) caldera does not exceed ∼78 ka, even though the mid- to ultra-distal tephrostratigraphic record would suggest that activity in this area started well before that. Reconstructing the activity preceding the large caldera-forming Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) eruption of ∼40 ka, via surface geological surveys in proximal areas, is challenging because of the poor accessibility and paucity of sections recording the older chronostratigraphic interval. In order to fill the gap in knowledge of the activity preceding the CI eruption, a 113.2 m deep scientific drillhole was emplaced in the Ponti Rossi area, in the northern part of the city of Naples. The Ponti Rossi area was selected as representative of the stratigraphic setting prior to the CF caldera formation because it is close, although external, to any proposed caldera rim or downthrown area. The cored succession, consisting of pyroclastic deposits separated by paleosols, reworked humified deposits or subaerial erosional surfaces, has been logged and sampled for sedimentological, mineralogical, and geochronological analyses. Thirty-one Pyroclastic Units (PU) were identified. Based on the structural/textural features of the recovered sediments, the first relevant result is the possible absence of the CI, while the deposits of the ∼15 ka Neapolitan Yellow Tuff eruption, the second largest caldera-forming event of CF, represent the shallowest sediments. 40Ar/39Ar age determinations on alkali feldspars, extracted from juvenile fragments collected at 45.8–45.9 (PU-29) and 99.5–99.6 (PU-1) metres of depth, yielded ages of 59.03±0.50 ka and 110.00±0.35 ka, respectively. The age obtained for the deepest cored unit, having sedimentological characteristics compatible with proximal deposition, represents the oldest age obtained for a pyroclastic deposit in the sequences near the CF caldera boundaries and extends by 30 ky the explosive history of this area. Furthermore, based on 40Ar/39Ar age constraints, at least 29 eruptions, spanning the ∼59–110 ka interval, can be added to the volcanic history of the Neapolitan Volcanic Area. These eruptions can be largely attributed to the CF area, prior to the CI caldera formation, and testify to hitherto unknown, intense explosive activity.

Alberico, I., Petrosino, P., Lirer, L., 2011. Volcanic hazard and risk assessment in a multi-source volcanic
area: the example of Napoli city (Southern Italy). Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 11(4), 1057–1070.
https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-1057-2011
Alberico, I., Petrosino, P., Zeni, G., D’Andrea, F., Lirer, L., 2005. GEOCITY: a drill-hole database as a tool
to assess geological hazard in Napoli urban area. Environ. Geol. 47(6), 751–762.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-004-1199-5
Albert, P.G., Giaccio, B., Isaia, R., Costa, A., Niespolo, E.M., Nomade, S., Pereira, A., Renne, P.R.,
Hinchliffe, A., Mark, D.F., Brown, R.J., Smith, V.C., 2019. Evidence for a large-magnitude eruption from
Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy) at 29 ka. Geology 47(7), 595–599. https://doi.org/10.1130/g45805.1
Aprile, F., Toccaceli, R.M., 2002. Nuove conoscenze sulla stratigrafia e distribuzione dei depositi
ignimbritici quaternari nel sottosuolo della piana del Sarno (Salerno-Campania)-Italia meridionale. Il
Quaternario 15(2) 169-174. https://amq.aiqua.it/index.php/amq/article/view/604.
Aprile, F., Sbrana, A., Toccaceli, R.M. 2004. Il ruolo dei depositi piroclastici nell’analisi cronostratigrafica
dei terreni quaternari del sottosuolo della Piana Campana (Italia meridionale). Il Quaternario 17, 547-554.
Ascione, A., Aucelli, P.P., Cinque, A., Di Paola, G., Mattei, G., Ruello, M., Ermolli Russo E., Santangelo N.,
Valente, E., (2021). Geomorphology of Naples and the Campi Flegrei: Human and natural landscapes in a
restless land. Journal of Maps, 17(4), 18-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1768448
Astort, A., Trasatti, E., Caricchi, L., Polcari, M., De Martino, P., Acocella, V., Di Vito, M. A., 2024. Tracking
the 2007–2023 magma-driven unrest at Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy). Commun. Earth Environ. 5(1), 506.
Barberi, F., Innocenti, F., Lirer, L., Munno, R., Pescatore, T., Santacroce, R. 1978. The Campanian Ignimbrite: a major prehistoric eruption in the Neapolitan area (Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 41(1), 1–22.

Barberi, F., Cassano, E., La Torre, P., Sbrana, A., 1991. Structural evolution of Campi Flegrei caldera in light
of volcanological and geophysical data. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 48(1-2), 33-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02597680
Belkin, H.E., Rolandi, G., Jackson, J.C., Cannatelli, C., Doherty, A.L., Petrosino, P., De Vivo, B., 2016.
Mineralogy and geochemistry of the older (> 40 ka) ignimbrites on the Campanian Plain, southern Italy. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 323, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.05.002 Bellucci, F., Milia, A., Rolandi, G., Torrente, M.M., 2006. Structural control on the Upper Pleistocene
ignimbrite eruptions in the Neapolitan area (Italy): volcano tectonic faults versus caldera faults. In
Developments in Volcanology 9, 163-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1871-644x(06)80022-7
Bellucci, F., Santangelo, N., Santo, A., 2003. Segnalazione di nuovi depositi piroclastici intercalati alle
successioni continentali del Pleistocene Superiore-Olocene della porzione nord-orientale della Piana
campana. Alp. Mediterr. Quat. 16(2), 279-287.
Bevilacqua, A., De Martino, P., Giudicepietro, F., Ricciolino, P., Patra, A., Pitman, E.B., Bursik, M., Voight,
B., Flandoli, F., Macedonio, G., Neri, A., (2022b). Data analysis of the unsteadily accelerating GPS and
seismic records at Campi Flegrei caldera from 2000 to 2020. Sci. Rep. 12(1), 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23628-5
Bevilacqua, A., Macedonio, G., Neri, A., Orsi, G., Petrosino, P., 2022a. Volcanic Hazard Assessment at the
Campi Flegrei Caldera, Italy. In Campi Flegrei: A Restless Caldera in a Densely Populated Area, 311-355.
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37060-1_12
Branney, M., Acocella, V. (2015). Calderas. The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, 299–315, Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00016-x
Brocchini, D., Principe, C., Castradori, D., Laurenzi, M. A., Gorla, L., 2001. Quaternary evolution of the
southern sector of the Campanian Plain and early Somma-Vesuvius activity: insights from the Trecase 1
well. Mineral. Petrol., 73(1), 67-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s007100170011
Brown, R.J., Civetta, L., Arienzo, I., D’Antonio, M., Moretti, R., Orsi, G., Tomlinson E. L., Albert P.G.,
Menzies, M.A., 2014. Geochemical and isotopic insights into the assembly, evolution and disruption of a
magmatic plumbing system before and after a cataclysmic caldera-collapse eruption at Ischia volcano
(Italy). Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 168(3), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-014-1035-1
Brown, R.J., Orsi, G., de Vita, S., 2008. New insights into Late Pleistocene explosive volcanic activity and
caldera formation on Ischia(southern https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-007-0155-0 Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 70(5), 583-603.
Chiodini, G., Caliro, S., Avino, R., Bini, G., Giudicepietro, F., De Cesare, W., Ricciolino, P., Aiuppa, A.
Cardellini, C., Petrillo, Z., Selva, J., Siniscalchi, A., Tripaldi, S., 2021. Hydrothermal pressure
temperature control on CO2 emissions and seismicity at Campi Flegrei (Italy). J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res. 414, 107245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107245
Cioni, R., Longo, A., Macedonio, G., Santacroce, R., Sbrana, A., Sulpizio, R., Andronico, D., 2003.
Assessing pyroclastic fall hazard through field data and numerical simulations: example from Vesuvius. J.
Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 108(B2). https://doi.org/10.1029/2001jb000642
Cole, J.W., Milner, D.M., Spinks, K.D., 2005. Calderas and caldera structures: a review. Earth Sci. Rev.
69(1-2), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.06.004
Cole, P.D., Scarpati, C., 1993. A facies interpretation of the eruption and emplacement mechanisms of the
upper part of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff, Campi Flegrei, southern Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 55(5), 311-326.
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00301143
Costa, A., Di Vito, M.A. Ricciardi, G.P. Smith, V.C., Talamo, P., 2022. The long and intertwined record of
humans and the Campi Flegrei volcano (Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 84(1), 1-27.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-021-01503-x
D’Antonio, M., Arienzo, I., Brown, R.J., Petrosino, P., Pelullo, P., Giaccio, B., 2021. Tephrostratigraphic
Marker in Distal Sequences of the Central Mediterranean. Minerals 2021, 11(9), 955;
https://doi.org/10.3390/min11090955
D’Antonio, M., Arienzo, I., Di Renzo, V., Civetta, L., Carandente, A., Tonarini, S., 2022. Origin and
differentiation history of the magmatic system feeding the Campi Flegrei volcanic field (Italy)
constrained by radiogenic and stable isotope data. In Campi Flegrei: A Restless Caldera in a Densely
Populated Area, 125-149. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37060-1_4
D’Oriano, C., Poggianti, E., Bertagnini, A., Cioni, R., Landi, P., Polacci, M., Rosi, M., 2005. Changes in
eruptive style during the AD 1538 Monte Nuovo eruption (Phlegrean Fields, Italy): the role of syn
eruptive crystallization. Bull. Volcanol. 67, 601-621. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-004-0397-z
De Astis, G., Pappalardo, L., Piochi, M., 2004. Procida volcanic history: new insights into the evolution of
the Phlegraean Volcanic District (Campania region, Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 66(7), 622-641.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-004-0345-y
Deino, A. L., Orsi, G., de Vita, S., Piochi, M., 2004. The age of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff caldera- forming
eruption (Campi Flegrei caldera–Italy) assessed by 40Ar/39Ar dating method. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res. 133(1-4), 157-170. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(03)00396-2
Del Pezzo, E., Bianco, F., 2024. Space and time distribution of seismic source energy at campi flegrei, Italy
through the last unrest phase (1.1. 2000–31.12. 2023). Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 107258.
De Martino, P., Dolce, M., Brandi, G., Scarpato, G., Tammaro, U., 2021. The ground deformation history of
the neapolitan volcanic area (Campi Flegrei caldera, Somma–Vesuvius Volcano, and Ischia Island) from 20
years of continuous GPS observations (2000–2019). Remote Sensing, 13(14), 2725.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13142725
De Natale, G., Troise, C., Mark, D., Mormone, A., Piochi, M., Di Vito, M. A., Isaia, R., Carlino, S., Barra,
D., Somma, R., 2016. The Campi Flegrei Deep Drilling Project (CFDDP): New insight on caldera
structure, evolution and hazard implications for the Naples area (Southern Italy). Geochem. Geophys.
Geosyst. 17(12), 4836-4847. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015gc006183
de Vita, S., Orsi, G., Civetta, L., Carandente, A., D'Antonio, M., Deino, A., di Cesare, T., Di Vito, M. A.,
Fisher, R.V., Isaia, R., Marotta, E., Necco, A., Ort, M., Pappalardo, L., Piochi, M., Southon, J., 1999. The
Agnano–Monte Spina eruption (4100 years BP) in the restless Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy). J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 91(2-4), 269-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00039-6
de Vita, S., Sansivero, F., Orsi, G., Marotta, E., Piochi, M., 2010. Volcanological and structural evolution of
the Ischia resurgent caldera (Italy) over the past 10 ky. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Paper 464, 193-239.
https://doi.org/10.1130/2010.2464(10)
De Vivo, B., Rolandi, G., Gans, P.B., Calvert, A., Bohrson, W.A., Spera, F.J., Belkin, H. E., 2001. New
constrains of pyroclastic eruptive history of the Campanian Volcanic Plain. Mineral. Petrol. 73, 47-65.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s007100170010
Di Girolamo P., 1970. Differenziazione gravitativa e curve isochimiche nella ”Ignimbrite Campana”. Rend.
Soc. Ital. Mineral. Petrol., 26, 3–44.
Di Renzo, V., Di Vito, M.A., Arienzo, I., Carandente, A., Civetta, L., D'antonio, M., giordano F., Orsi G.,
Tonarini, S., 2007. Magmatic history of Somma–Vesuvius on the basis of new geochemical and isotopic
data from a deep borehole (Camaldoli della Torre). J. Petrol. 48(4), 753-784.
https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egl081
Di Roberto, A., Smedile, A., Del Carlo, P., De Martini, P.M., Iorio, M., Petrelli, M., Pantosti, D., Pinzi, S.,
Todrani, A., 2018. Tephra and cryptotephra in a~ 60,000-year-old lacustrine sequence from the Fucino
Basin: new insights into the major explosive events in Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 80(3), 1-23.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-018-1200-x
Di Vincenzo, G., 2022. High precision multi-collector 40Ar/39Ar dating of moldavites (Central European
tektites) reconciles geochronological and paleomagnetic data. Chem. Geol., 608, 121026.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.1210262022
Di Vincenzo, G., Folco, L., Suttle, M.D., Brase, L., Harvey, R.P., 2021. Multi-collector 40Ar/39Ar dating of
microtektites from Transantarctic Mountains (Antarctica): A definitive link with the Australasian tektite/microtektite strewn field.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2021.01.046 Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 298, 112–130.
Di Vito, M.A., Isaia, R., Orsi, G., Southon, J.D., De Vita, S., D'Antonio, M., Pappalardo, L., Piochi, M.
(1999). Volcanism and deformation since 12,000 years at the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy). J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 91(2-4), 221-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00037-2
Di Vito, M.A., Sulpizio, R., Zanchetta, G., D'Orazio, M., 2008. The late Pleistocene pyroclastic deposits of
the Campanian Plain: new insights into the explosive activity of Neapolitan volcanoes. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 177(1), 19-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.11.019
Di Vito, M.A., Lirer, L., Mastrolorenzo, G., Rolandi, G., 1987. The 1538 Monte Nuovo eruption (Campi
Flegrei, Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 49(4), 608-615. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01079966
Di Vito, M.A., Acocella, V., Aiello, G., Barra, D., Battaglia, M., Carandente, A., Del Gaudio, C., de Vita, S.,
Ricciardi, G.P., Ricco C., Scandone, R., Terrasi, F., 2016. Magma transfer at Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy)
before the 1538 AD eruption. Sci. Rep. 6(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32245
Fisher, R.V., Schmincke, H.-U., 1984, Pyroclastic Rocks. Springer Verlag, pp. 472. Berlin.
Fedele, L., Morra, V., Perrotta, A., Scarpati, C., 2006. Volcanological and geochemical features of the
products of the Fiumicello eruption, Procida island, Campi Flegrei (southern Italy). Periodico di
Mineralogia, 75(1), 43-72.
Fedele, L., Scarpati, C., Lanphere, M., Melluso, L., Morra, V., Perrotta, A., Ricci, G., 2008. The Breccia
Museo formation, Campi Flegrei, southern Italy: geochronology, chemostratigraphy and relationship with
the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption. Bull. Volcanol. 70, 1189-1219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-008
0197-y
Fedele, L., Scarpati, C., Sparice, D., Perrotta, A., Laiena, F., 2016. A chemostratigraphic study of the
Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Campi Flegrei, Italy): insights on magma chamber withdrawal and
deposit accumulation as revealed by compositionally zoned stratigraphic and facies framework. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 324, 105-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.05.019
Fernandez, G., Giaccio, B., Costa, A., Monaco, L., Nomade, S., Albert, P.G., Pereira, A., Flynn, M., Leicher,
N., Lucchi, F., Petrosino, P., Palladino, D.M., Milia, A., Insinga, D. D., Wulf, S., Kearney, R., Veres, D.,
Jordanova, D., Putignano, M.L., Isaia, R., Sottili, G., 2024. New constraints on the Middle-Late
Pleistocene Campi Flegrei explosive activity and Mediterranean tephrostratigraphy (~ 160 ka and 110–90
ka). Quat. Sci. Rev. 331, 108623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108623
Fisher, R.V., Orsi, G., Ort, M., Heiken, G., 1993. Mobility of a large-volume pyroclastic flow—emplacement of the Campanian ignimbrite, Italy. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 56(3), 205-220.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(93)90017-l
Geyer, A., Martí, J., 2009. Stress fields controlling the formation of nested and overlapping calderas:
implications for the understanding of caldera unrest. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 181(3-4), 185-195.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2009.01.018
Giaccio, B., Hajdas, I., Isaia, R., Deino, A., Nomade, S., 2017a. High-precision 14C and 40Ar/39Ar dating of
the Campanian Ignimbrite (Y-5) reconciles the time-scales of climatic-cultural processes at 40 ka. Sci.
Rep. 7(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45940
Giaccio, B., Niespolo, E. M., Pereira, A., Nomade, S., Renne, P. R., Albert, P. G., Arienzo I., Regattieri, E.,
Wagner, B., Zanchetta, G., Gaeta, M., Galli, P., Mannella, G., Peronace, E., Sottili, G., Florindo, F.,
Leicher, N., Marra, F., Tomlinson, E. L., 2017b. First integrated tephrochronological record for the last∼
190 kyr from the Fucino Quaternary lacustrine succession, central Italy. Quat. Sci. Rev. 158, 211-234.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.01.004
Giaccio, B., Nomade, S., Wulf, S., Isaia, R., Sottili, G., Cavuoto, G., Galli P., Messina P., Spostato A.,
Sulpizio, R., Zanchetta, G., 2012. The late MIS 5 Mediterranean tephra markers: a reappraisal from
peninsular Italy terrestrial records. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.09.009 Quat. Sci. Rev.
56, 31-45.
Giacomuzzi, G., Chiarabba, C., Bianco, F., De Gori, P., Agostinetti, N.P., 2024. Tracking transient changes in
the plumbing system at Campi Flegrei Caldera. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 637, 118744.
https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-egu24-7629
Gooday, R.J., Brown, D.J., Goodenough, K.M., Kerr, A.C., 2018. A proximal record of caldera-forming
eruptions: the stratigraphy, eruptive history and collapse of the Palaeogene Arran caldera, western
Scotland. Bull. Volcanol. 80(9), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-018-1243-z
Insinga, D.D., Tamburrino, S., Lirer, F., Vezzoli, L., Barra, M., De Lange, G.J., Tiepolo M., Vallefuoco M.,
Mazzola S., Sprovieri, M., 2014. Tephrochronology of the astronomically-tuned KC01B deep-sea core,
Ionian Sea: insights into the explosive activity of the Central Mediterranean area during the last 200 ka.
Quat. Sci. Rev. 85, 63-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.11.019
Isaia, R., D’Antonio, M., Dell’Erba, F., Di Vito, M., Orsi, G. (2004). The Astroni volcano: the only example
of closely spaced eruptions in the same vent area during the recent history of the Campi Flegrei caldera
(Italy). J. Volcanol, Geotherm. Res. 133(1-4), 171-192.
Isaia, R., Di Giuseppe, M.G., Natale, J., Tramparulo, F.D.A., Troiano, A., Vitale, S., 2021. Volcano‐tectonic
setting of the Pisciarelli fumarole field, Campi Flegrei caldera, southern Italy: Insights into fluid circulation patterns and hazard
https://doi.org/10.1029/2020tc006227 scenarios. Tectonics 40(5), e2020TC006227.
Isaia, R., Vitale, S., Marturano, A., Aiello, G., Barra, D., Ciarcia, S., Iannuzzi E.., Tramparulo, F.D.A., 2019.
High-resolution geological investigations to reconstruct the long-term ground movements in the last 15
kyr at Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy). J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 385, 143-158.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2019.07.012 Koppers, A.A.P., 2002. ArArCALC—software for 40Ar/39Ar age calculations. Comp. Geosci. 28, 605–619.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-3004(01)00095-4
Lambeck, K., Chappell, J., 2001. Sea level change through the last glacial cycle. Science 292(5517), 679
686. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1059549
Lee, J.-Y., Marti, K., Severinghaus, J.P., Kawamura, K., Yoo, H.-S., Lee, J.B., Kim, J.S., 2006. A
redetermination of the isotopic abundances of atmospheric Ar. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70(17), 4507
4512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.1563
Lirer, L., Luongo, G., Scandone, R., 1987. On the volcanological evolution of Campi Flegrei. Eos,
Transactions American Geophysical Union 68(16), 226-234. https://doi.org/10.1029/eo068i016p00226
Lirer, L., Petrosino, P., Alberico, I., 2010. Hazard and risk assessment in a complex multi-source volcanic
area: the example of the Campania Region, Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 72, 411-429.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-009-0334-2
Lucchi, F., 2013. Stratigraphic methodology for the geological mapping of volcanic areas: insights from the
Aeolian archipelago (southern Italy). Geological Society London Memoirs 37, 37e53.
https://doi.org/10.1144/m37.5
Lucchi, F., Tranne, C.A., Rossi, P.L., 2010. Stratigraphic approach to geological mapping of the late
Quaternary volcanic island of Lipari (Aeolian archipelago, Southern Italy). Stratigraphy and Geology of
Volcanic Areas. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. Special Papers 464, 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1130/2010.2464(01)
Maggiore, L., 1934. Information on volcanic materials of Campania used in building construction. Estr. Rel.
Serv. Min. Statistiche Ind. Estr. 45(60):57–61.
Marianelli, P., Sbrana, A., Proto, M., 2006. Magma chamber of the Campi Flegrei supervolcano at the time of
eruption of the Campanian Ignimbrite. Geology 34(11), 937-940. https://doi.org/10.1130/g22807a.1
Melluso, L., Morra, V., Perrotta, A., Scarpati, C., Adabbo, M., 1995. The eruption of the Breccia Museo
(Campi Flegrei, Italy): fractional crystallization processes in a shallow, zoned magma chamber and
implications for the eruptive dynamics. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 68(4), 325-339.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(95)00020-5
Martí, J., Groppelli, G., da Silveira, A. B. (2018). Volcanic stratigraphy: A review. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res. 357, 68-91.
Matthews, I.P., Trincardi, F., Lowe, J.J., Bourne, A.J., MacLeod, A., Abbott, P.M., Andersen, N., Asioni, A.,
Blockley, S.P.E., Lane, C.S., Oh, Y.A., Satow, C.S., Staff, R.A., Wulf, S., 2015. Developing a robust
tephrochronological framework for Late Quaternary marine records in the Southern Adriatic Sea: new data from core station SA03-11.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.10.009 Quat. Sci. Rev. 118, 84-104.
Milia, A., Torrente, M.M., 2020. Space-time evolution of an active volcanic field in an extentional region:
the example of the Campania margin (eastern Tyrrhenian Sea). In Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei, and
Campanian Volcanism 297-321. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-816454-9.00012-2
Min, K., Mundil, R., Renne, P.R., Ludwig, K.R., (2000). A test for systematic errors in 40Ar/39Ar
geochronology through comparison with U–Pb analysis of a 1.1 Ga rhyolite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
64, 73–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00204-5
Monaco, L., Palladino, D.M., Albert, P.G., Arienzo, I., Conticelli, S., Di Vito, M., Frabbrizio, A., D’Antonio,
M., Isaia, R., Manning, C.J., Nomade, S., Pereira, A., Petrosino, P., Sottili, G., Sulpizio, R., Zanchetta, G.,
Giaccio, B., 2022a. Linking the Mediterranean MIS 5 tephra markers to Campi Flegrei (southern Italy)
109–92 ka explosive activity and refining the chronology of MIS 5c-d millennial-scale climate variability.
Global Planet. Change 211, 103785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2022.103785
Monaco, L., Leicher, N., Palladino, D.M., Arienzo, I., Marra, F., Petrelli, M., Nomade, S., Pereira, A., Sottili,
G., Conticelli, S., D’Antonio, M., Fabbrizio, A., Jicha, B.R., Mannella, G., Petrosino, P., Regattieri, E.
Polychronis, C.T., Wagner, B., Zanchetta, G., Giaccio, B., 2022b. The Fucino 250–170 ka tephra record:
New insights on peri-Tyrrhenian explosive volcanism, central mediterranean tephrochronology, andtiming of the MIS 8-6 climate
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107797 variability. Quat. Sci. Rev.
296, 107797.
Morabito, S., Petrosino, P., Milia, A., Sprovieri, M., Tamburrino, S., 2014. A multidisciplinary approach for
reconstructing the stratigraphic framework of the last 40 ka in a bathyal area of the eastern Tyrrhenian
Sea. Global Planet. Change 123, 121-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.10.005
Natale, J., Camanni, G., Ferranti, L., Isaia, R., Sacchi, M., Spiess, V., Steinmann, L., Vitale, S., 2022a. Fault
systems in the offshore sector of the Campi Flegrei caldera (southern Italy): Implications for nested
caldera structure, resurgent dome, and volcano-tectonic evolution. J. Struct. Geol. 163, 104723.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsg.2022.104723
Natale, J., Ferranti, L., Isaia, R., Marino, C., Sacchi, M., Spiess, V., Steimann, L., Vitale, S., 2022b.
Integrated on‐land‐offshore stratigraphy of the Campi Flegrei caldera: New insights into the volcano
tectonic evolution in the last 15 kyr. Basin Research 34(2), 855-882. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12643
Németh, K., Palmer, J., 2019. Geological mapping of volcanic terrains: Discussion on concepts, facies
models, scales, and resolutions from New Zealand perspective. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 385, 27-45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2018.11.028
Niespolo, E.M., Rutte, D., Deino, A.L. Renne, P.R., 2017. Intercalibration and age of the Alder Creek
sanidine 40Ar/39Ar standard. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2016.09.004 Quat. Geochronol. 39, 205–213
Orsi, G. (2022). Volcanic and Deformation History of the Campi Flegrei Volcanic Field, Italy. Campi Flegrei,
1-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37060-1_1
Orsi, G., D'Antonio, M., de Vita, S., Gallo, G. (1992). The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff, a large-magnitude
trachytic phreatoplinian eruption: eruptive dynamics, magma withdrawal and caldera collapse. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 53(1-4), 275-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(92)90086-s
Orsi, G., De Vita, S., Di Vito, M., 1996. The restless, resurgent Campi Flegrei nested caldera (Italy):
constraints on its evolution and configuration. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 74(3-4), 179-214.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(96)00063-7
Orsi, G., Di Vito, M. A., Isaia, R., (2004). Volcanic hazard assessment at the restless Campi Flegrei caldera.
Bull. Volcanol. 66(6), 514-530. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37060-1_12
Orsi, G., Di Vito, M.A., Selva, J., Marzocchi, W., 2009. Long-term forecast of eruption style and size at Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.08.013 Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 287(1-2), 265-276.
Ort, M.H., Orsi, G., Pappalardo, L., Fisher, R.V., 2003. Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility studies of
depositional processes in the Campanian Ignimbrite, Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 65, 55-72.
Ort, M.H., Rosi, M., Anderson, C.D., 1999. Correlation of deposits and vent locations of the proximal
Campanian Ignimbrite deposits, Campi Flegrei, Italy, based on natural remanent magnetization and
anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility characteristics. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 91(2-4), 167-178.
Pabst, S., Wörner, G., Civetta, L., Tesoro, R., 2008. Magma chamber evolution prior to the Campanian
ignimbrite and Neapolitan Yellow Tuff eruptions (Campi Flegrei, Italy). Bull. Volcanol. 70, 961-976.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-007-0180-z
Pappalardo, L., Civetta, L., d'Antonio, M., Deino, A., Di Vito, M., Orsi, G., Carandente, A., de Vita, S., Isaia,
R., Piochi, M., 1999. Chemical and Sr-isotopical evolution of the Phlegraean magmatic system before the
Campanian Ignimbrite and the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff eruptions. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 91(2-4),
141-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00033-5
Pappalardo, L., Civetta, L., De Vita, S., Di Vito, M., Orsi, G., Carandente, A., Fisher, R.V., 2002. Timing of
magma extraction during the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Campi Flegrei Caldera). J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 114(3-4), 479-497. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(01)00302-x
Peltier, W. R. (2002). On eustatic sea level history: Last Glacial Maximum to Holocene. Quat. Sci. Rev.
21(1-3), 377-396. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-3791(01)00084-1
Pelullo, C., Arienzo, I., D’Antonio, M., Giaccio, B., Iovine, R. S., Leicher, N., Palladino D.M., Petrelli M.,
Petrosino P., Russo Ermolli E., Sottili G., Totaro F., Zanchetta, G., 2024. Explosive volcanic activity in
Central-Southern Italy during Middle Pleistocene: A tale from tephra layers of the Acerno basin. Quat.
Sci. Adv. 14, 100186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qsa.2024.100186
Pennetta, M., Russo, F., Donadio, C., 2014. Late Quaternary environmental evolution of the intermontane
Valle Caudina basin, southern Italy. Rendiconti Lincei, 25(2), 231-240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210
014-0334-9
Perrotta, A., Scarpati, C., 1994. The dynamics of the Breccia Museo eruption (Campi Flegrei, Italy) and the
significance of spatter clasts associated with lithic breccias. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 59(4), 335-355.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(94)90086-8
Perrotta, A., Scarpati, C., Luongo, G., Morra, V., 2006. The Campi Flegrei caldera boundary in the city of
Naples. Volcanism in the Campania Plain - Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei and Ignimbrites, 9, 85–96.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s1871-644x(06)80019-7

Perrotta, A., Scarpati, C., Luongo, G., Morra, V., 2010. Stratigraphy and volcanological evolution of the
southwestern sector of Campi Flegrei and Procida Island, Italy. Stratigraphy and Geology of Volcanic
Areas. Geol. Soc. Am., Special Paper, 464, 171-191. https://doi.org/10.1130/2010.2464(09)
Petrosino, P., Angrisani, A.C., Barra, D., Donadio, C., Aiello, G., Allocca, V., Coda S., De Vita, P., Jicha,
B.R., Calcaterra, D., 2021. Multiproxy approach to urban geology of the historical center of Naples, Italy.
Quat. Int. 577, 147-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2020.12.043
Petrosino, P., Morabito, S., Jicha, B.R., Milia, A., Sprovieri, M., Tamburrino, S., 2016. Multidisciplinary
tephrochronological correlation of marker events in the eastern Tyrrhenian Sea between 48 and 105 ka. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 315, 79-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2021.107461
Petrosino, P., Arienzo, I., Mazzeo, F.C., Natale, J., Petrelli, M., Milia, A., Perugini D., D′ Antonio, M., 2019.
The San Gregorio Magno lacustrine basin (Campania, southern Italy): improved characterization of the
tephrostratigraphic markers based on trace elements and isotopic data. J. Quat. Sci., 34(6), 393-404.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3107
Piochi, M., Mastrolorenzo, G., Pappalardo, L., 2005. Magma ascent and eruptive processes from textural and
compositional features of Monte Nuovo pyroclastic products, Campi Flegrei, Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 67,
663-678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00445-005-0410-1
Piochi, M., Kilburn, C.R.J., Di Vito, M.A., Mormone, A., Tramelli, A., Troise, C., De Natale, G., 2014. The
volcanic and geothermally active Campi Flegrei caldera: an integrated multidisciplinary image of its
buried structure. Int. J. Earth Sci. 103, 401-421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-013-0972-7
Pistolesi, M., Isaia, R., Marianelli, P., Bertagnini, A., Fourmentraux, C., Albert, P.G., Tomlison, E.L.,
Menzies, M.A., Rosi, M., Sbrana, A., 2016. Simultaneous eruptions from multiple vents at Campi Flegrei
(Italy) highlight new eruption processes at calderas. Geology, 44(6), 487-490.
https://doi.org/10.1130/g37870.1
Rittmann, A., 1950. Geological survey of Camaldoli Hill in Campi Flegrei. Boll. Soc. Geol. It. 49, 48 pp (in
Italian).
Rolandi, G., Bellucci, F., Heizler, M.T., Belkin, H.E., De Vivo, B., 2003. Tectonic controls on the genesis of
ignimbrites from the Campanian Volcanic Zone, southern Italy. Mineral. Petrol. 79(1), 3-31.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-003-0014-4
Rolandi, G., De Natale, G., Kilburn, C. R., Troise, C., Somma, R., Di Lascio, M., Fedele A., Rolandi, R.,
2020. The 39 ka Campanian Ignimbrite eruption: new data on source area in the Campanian Plain. In
Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei, and Campanian Volcanism, 175-205. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0
12-816454-9.00008-0
Romano, P., Di Vito, M.A., Giampaola, D., Cinque, A., Bartoli, C., Boenzi, G., Detta F., Di Marco, M.,
Giglio, M., Iodice, S., Liuzza, V., Ruello, M.R., di Cola, C.S., 2013. Intersection of exogenous,
endogenous and anthropogenic factors in the Holocene landscape: A study of the Naples coastline during
the last 6000 years. Quat. Int. 303, 107-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.03.031
Romano, P., Santo, A., Voltaggio, M., 1994. L’evoluzione geo-morfologica della Pianura del Fiume Volturno
(Campania) durante il tardo Quaternario (Pleistocene medio superiore-Olocene). Il Quaternario, 7(1), 41
56.
Rosi, M., Sbrana, A., 1987. Phlegrean fields. Quaderni de la ricerca scientifica, 9(114).
Rosi, M., Sbrana, A., Principe, C., 1983. The Phlegraean Fields: structural evolution, volcanic history and
eruptive mechanisms. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 17(1-4), 273-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377
0273(83)90072-0
Rosi, M., Sbrana, A., Vezzoli, L., 1988. Correlazioni tefrostratigraphiche di alcuni livelli di Ischia, Procida e
Campi Flegrei. Memorie della Societa Geologica Italiana, 41, 1015-1027.
Rosi, M., Vezzoli, L., Castelmenzano, A., Grieco, G., 1999. Plinian pumice fall deposit of the Campanian
Ignimbrite eruption (Phlegraean Fields, Italy). J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 91(2-4), 179-198.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00035-9
Sacchi, M., De Natale, G., Spiess, V., Steinmann, L., Acocella, V., Corradino, M., de Silva, S., Fedele, A.,
Fedele, L., Geshi, N., Kilburn, C., Insinga, D., Jurado, M.J., Molisso, F., Petrosino, P., Passaro, S., Pepe,
F., Porfido, S., Scarpati, C., Schmincke, H.U., Somma, R., Sumita, M., Tamburrino, S., Troise, C.,
Vallefuoco, M., Ventura, G., 2019. A roadmap for amphibious drilling at the Campi Flegrei caldera:
Insights from a MagellanPlus workshop. Sci. Drill. 26, 29-46. https://doi.org/10.5194/sd-26-29-2019
Santangelo, N., Romano, P., Ascione, A., Ermolli, E.R., 2017. Quaternary evolution of the Southern
Apennines coastal plains: A review. Geologica Carpathica, 68(1), 43. https://doi.org/10.1515/geoca-2017
0004
Santangelo, I., Scarpati, C., Perrotta, A., Fedele L., Cole, P., Cioni, R., D’Oriano, C., De’ Micheli Vitturi, M.,
Pardini, F., Speranza, F., 2024. Unveiling the ancient history of the southwestern sector of Campi Flegrei
through the stratigraphy compositional variability and physical volcanology of the pre-caldera Vitafumo
and Miliscola tuff cones. Miscellanea INGV 83, 63. 6th Conference A. Rittmann, 18-20 September 2024,
Catania, Italy.
Sbrana, A., Marianelli, P., Pasquini, G., 2018. Volcanology of Ischia (Italy). J. Maps 14(2), 494-503.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2018.1498811
Sbrana, A., Marianelli, P., Pasquini, G., 2021. The Phlegrean Fields volcanological evolution. J. Maps 17(2),
557-570. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2021.1982033
Scandone, R., Bellucci, F., Lirer, L., Rolandi, G., 1991. The structure of the Campanian Plain and the activity of the Neapolitan volcanoes
(Italy). https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(91)90030-4 J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 48(1-2), 1-31.
Scarpa, R., Bianco, F., Capuano, P., Castellano, M., D’Auria, L., Lieto, B.D., Romano, P. (2022). Historic
Unrest of the Campi Flegrei Caldera, Italy. In Campi Flegrei, 257-282. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-37060-1_10
Scarpati, C., Perrotta, A. (2012). Erosional characteristics and behaviour of large pyroclastic density currents.
Geology, 40(11), 1035-1038.
Scarpati, C., Cole, P., Perrotta, A., 1993. The Neapolitan Yellow Tuff—a large volume multiphase eruption
from Campi Flegrei, southern Italy. Bull. Volcanol. 55(5), 343-356. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00301145
Scarpati, C., Perrotta, A., 2016. Stratigraphy and physical parameters of the Plinian phase of the Campanian
Ignimbrite eruption. GSA Bulletin, 128(7-8), 1147-1159. https://doi.org/10.1130/b31331.1
Scarpati, C., Perrotta, A., Lepore, S., Calvert, A., 2013. Eruptive history of Neapolitan volcanoes: constraints
from 40Ar–39Ar dating. Geol. Mag. 150(3), 412-425. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0016756812000854
Scarpati, C., Perrotta, A., Sparice, D., 2015. Volcanism in the city of Naples. Rendiconti Online Società
Geologica Italiana, 33. https://doi.org/10.3301/rol.2015.21
Scarpati, C., Sparice, D., Perrotta, A., 2014. A crystal concentration method for calculating ignimbrite
volume from distal ash-fall deposits and a reappraisal of the magnitude of the Campanian Ignimbrite. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 280, 67-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.05.009
Scarpati, C., Sparice, D., Perrotta, A., 2016. Comparative proximal features of the main Plinian deposits
(Campanian Ignimbrite and Pomici di Base) of Campi Flegrei and Vesuvius. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
321, 149-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.04.040
Scarpati, C., Sparice, D., Perrotta, A., 2020. Dynamics of large pyroclastic currents inferred by the internal
architecture of the Campanian Ignimbrite. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020
79164-7
Silleni, A., Giordano, G., Isaia, R., Ort, M.H., 2020. The magnitude of the 39.8 ka Campanian Ignimbrite eruption, Italy: method, uncertainties
https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.543399 and errors. Front. Earth Sci. 8, 543399.
Silleni, A., Giordano, G., Ort, M.H., Isaia, R., 2024. Transport and deposition of the 39.8 ka Campanian Ignimbrite large-scale pyroclastic
https://doi.org/10.1130/B37500.1. density currents (Italy). Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
Smith, V.C., Isaia, R., Pearce, N.J.G., 2011. Tephrostratigraphy and glass compositions of post-15 kyr Campi
Flegrei eruptions: implications for eruption history and chronostratigraphic markers. Quat. Sci. Rev.
30(25-26), 3638-3660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2011.07.012
Steinmann, L., Spiess, V., Sacchi, M., 2016. The Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy): formation and evolution in
interplay with sea-level variations since the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption at 39 ka. J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res. 327, 361-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.09.001
Tomlinson, E. L., Albert, P.G., Wulf, S., Brown, R.J., Smith, V.C., Keller, J., Orsi, G., Bourne, A.J., Menzies,
M.A., 2014. Age and geochemistry of tephra layers from Ischia, Italy: constraints from 46 proximal-distal
correlations with Lago Grande di Monticchio. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 287, 22-39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.09.006
Tomlinson, E.L., Smith, V.C., Albert, P.G., Aydar, E., Civetta, L., Cioni, R., Çubukçu, E., Gertisser, R., Isaia,
R., Menzies, M.A., Orsi, G., Rosi, M., Zanchetta, G., 2015. The major and trace element glass
compositions of the productive Mediterranean volcanic sources: tools for correlating distal tephra layers
in and around Europe. Quat. Sci. Rev. 118, 48-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.10.028
Torrente, M.M., Milia, A., Bellucci, F., Rolandi, G., 2010. Extensional tectonics in the Campania Volcanic
Zone (eastern Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy): new insights into the relationship between faulting and ignimbrite
eruptions. Italian Journal of Geosciences, 129(2), 297-315. https://doi.org/10.3301/ijg.2010.07
Tramelli, A., Giudicepietro, F., Ricciolino, P., Chiodini, G. (2022). The seismicity of Campi Flegrei in the
contest of an evolving long term unrest. Sci. Rep. 12(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-069288
Vineberg, S.O., Isaia, R., Albert, P.G., Brown, R.J., Smith, V.C., 2023. Insights into the explosive eruption
history of the Campanian volcanoes prior to the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption. J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res. 443, 107915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2023.107915
Vitale, S., Ciarcia, S., 2018. Tectono-stratigraphic setting of the Campania region (southern Italy). J. Maps
14(2), 9–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2018.1424655
Vitale, S., Isaia, R., 2014. Fractures and faults in volcanic rocks (Campi Flegrei, southern Italy): Insight into
volcano-tectonic processes. Int. J. Earth Sci. 103(3), 801– 819. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-013-09790
Wohletz, K., Orsi, G., De Vita, S., 1995. Eruptive mechanisms of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff interpreted
from stratigraphy, chemical, and granulometric data. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 67(4), 263-290.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(95)00002-c
Wulf, S., Brauer, A., Mingram, J., Zolitschka, B., Negendank, J.F., 2006. Distal tephras in the sediments of
Monticchio maar lakes. La geologia del monte Vulture. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 105-122.
Wulf, S., Keller, J., Paterne, M., Mingram, J., Lauterbach, S., Opitz, S., Sottili, G., Giaccio, B., Albert, P. G.,
Satow, C., Tomlinson, E. L., Viccaro, M., Brauer, A., 2012. The 100–133 ka record of Italian explosive
volcanism and revised tephrochronology of Lago Grande di Monticchio. Quat. Sci. Rev, 58, 104–123.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.10.020
Zanchetta, G., Sulpizio, R., Giaccio, B., Siani, G., Paterne, M., Wulf, S., D'Orazio, M., 2008. The Y-3 tephra:
a Last Glacial stratigraphic marker for the central Mediterranean basin. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.
177(1), 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.017
Zernack, A.V., Cronin, S.J., Neall, V.E., Procter, J.N., 2011. A medial to distal volcaniclastic record of an
andesite stratovolcano: detailed stratigraphy of the ring-plain succession of south-west Taranaki, New
Zealand. Int. J. Earth Sci. 100(8), 1937-1966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-010-0610-6