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Groundwater nitrate risk assessment using intrinsic vulnerability methods: A comparative study of environmental impact by intensive farming in the Mediterranean region of Sicily, Italy
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
6A. Monitoraggio ambientale, sicurezza e territorio
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/156 (2015)
ISSN
0375-6742
Publisher
Elsevier Science Limited
Pages (printed)
89–100
Issued date
2015
Abstract
Groundwater contamination by nitrate and other nutrients is a major problem throughout the world, often
occurring as the result of anthropogenic activities, lack of management, and over-exploitation of groundwater
resources. In the last fewdecades in the majority of the Italian regions, the nitrate concentrations in groundwater
have dramatically increased, mainly as a consequence of the large-scale agricultural application of manure and
fertilizers. This excessive use of chemicals and fertilizers increases the risk of surface and groundwater pollution
fromdiffuse sources, which have an important impact on human health and the environment. Sicily is located in
the central Mediterranean, the total area of the island is 25,711 km2, with more than 5 million inhabitants. The
terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and intensively cultivated wherever it was possible, nitrate vulnerable
zone about 40% of flat areas and 5.37% of total. The test site is located in Canicattì (central Sicily); the current
land use (grape, olive and almond cultivation) constitutes the main source of groundwater pollution.
In order to investigate the effect of over-farming on groundwater quality and to indentify an appropriate
methodology for pollution risk management, we have carried out a comparative study on the potential risk of
contamination from nitrate of agricultural origin, according to the conventional parametrical methods used in
Europe; the IPNOA parametric model (agricultural nitrates hazard index) method combined with the SINTACS
and DRASTIC intrinsic aquifer vulnerabilitymethods. All parameters used in this risk assessment were prepared,
classified, weighed, and integrated in a GIS environment. For calibrating the models and optimizing and/or
weighing the examined factors, the modeling results were validated by comparing them with groundwater
quality data, in particular nitrate content, and with census data fromthe potential pollution sources. The criterion
for checking this method was the correlation coefficient of each model with the nitrate concentration in the
groundwater. A relative coincidence of a high nitrate concentration and risk mapping was observed, but this
correlation was only significant using the SINTACS method. In fact, the final risk maps show significant
differences in risk quality assessment; the DRASTIC model values show an over-evaluation of the real contest.
In conclusion, the SINTACS parametric method appears to be the most suitable for constructing a relevant risk
map of the contamination of these aquifers, which are considered to be typical of the Mediterranean region for
their hydrogeological and hydrochemical features
occurring as the result of anthropogenic activities, lack of management, and over-exploitation of groundwater
resources. In the last fewdecades in the majority of the Italian regions, the nitrate concentrations in groundwater
have dramatically increased, mainly as a consequence of the large-scale agricultural application of manure and
fertilizers. This excessive use of chemicals and fertilizers increases the risk of surface and groundwater pollution
fromdiffuse sources, which have an important impact on human health and the environment. Sicily is located in
the central Mediterranean, the total area of the island is 25,711 km2, with more than 5 million inhabitants. The
terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and intensively cultivated wherever it was possible, nitrate vulnerable
zone about 40% of flat areas and 5.37% of total. The test site is located in Canicattì (central Sicily); the current
land use (grape, olive and almond cultivation) constitutes the main source of groundwater pollution.
In order to investigate the effect of over-farming on groundwater quality and to indentify an appropriate
methodology for pollution risk management, we have carried out a comparative study on the potential risk of
contamination from nitrate of agricultural origin, according to the conventional parametrical methods used in
Europe; the IPNOA parametric model (agricultural nitrates hazard index) method combined with the SINTACS
and DRASTIC intrinsic aquifer vulnerabilitymethods. All parameters used in this risk assessment were prepared,
classified, weighed, and integrated in a GIS environment. For calibrating the models and optimizing and/or
weighing the examined factors, the modeling results were validated by comparing them with groundwater
quality data, in particular nitrate content, and with census data fromthe potential pollution sources. The criterion
for checking this method was the correlation coefficient of each model with the nitrate concentration in the
groundwater. A relative coincidence of a high nitrate concentration and risk mapping was observed, but this
correlation was only significant using the SINTACS method. In fact, the final risk maps show significant
differences in risk quality assessment; the DRASTIC model values show an over-evaluation of the real contest.
In conclusion, the SINTACS parametric method appears to be the most suitable for constructing a relevant risk
map of the contamination of these aquifers, which are considered to be typical of the Mediterranean region for
their hydrogeological and hydrochemical features
References
Addiscott, T.M., Whilmore, A.P., Powlson, D., 1991. Farming, Fertilizer and the Nitrate
Problem. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Agenzia per la protezione dell'ambiente e per i servizi tecnici (APAT), 2005.
La realizzazione in Italia del progetto europeo Corine Land Cover 2000. APAT
Report No. 36 Rome Italy.
Al-Adamat, R.A.N., Foster, I.D.L., Baban, S.M.J., 2003. Groundwater vulnerability and risk
mapping for the Basaltic aquifer of the Azraq basin of Jordan using GIS, remote
sensing and DRASTIC. Appl. Geogr. 23, 303–324.
Aller, L., Bennett, T., Lehr, J.H., Petty, R.J., Hackett, G., 1987. DRASTIC: a standardized system
for evaluating ground water pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings.
NWWA/EPA Series, EPA-600/2-87-035.
Antonakos, A.K., Lambrakis, N.J., 2007. Development and testing of three hybrid methods
for the assessment of aquifer vulnerability to nitrates, based on the drastic model, an
example from NE Korinthia, Greece. J. Hydrol. 333, 288–304.
APHA, AWWA, and WPCF, 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 18th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. USA.
Baalousha, H., 2010. Assessment of a groundwater quality monitoring network using
vulnerability mapping and geostatistics: a case study from Heretaunga Plains,
New Zealand. Agric. Water Manag. 97, 240–246.
Boeing, H., 1991. Epidemiological research in stomach cancer: progress over the last ten
years. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 117, 113–143.
Bukowski, P., Bromek, T., Augustyniak, I., 2006. Using the DRASTIC system to assess the
vulnerability of ground water to pollution in mined areas of the upper Silesian coal
basin. Mine Water Environ. 25, 15–22.
Burrough, P.A., McDonnell, R.A., 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems.
Oxford University Press, Oxford (327 pp.).
Butler, R.W.H., Lickorish, W.H., 1997. Using high resolution stratigraphy to date fold and
thrust activity: examples from the Neogene of South-central Sicily. J. Geol. Soc.
Lond. 154, 633–643.
Butler, R.W.H., Lickorish,W.H., Grasso, M., Pedley, H.M., Ramberti, L., 1995. Tectonics
and sequence stratigraphy in Messinian basins, Sicily; constraints on the initiation
and termination of the Mediterranean salinity crisis. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
107, 425–439.
Capri, E., Civita, M., Corniello, A., Cusimano, G., De Maio, M., Ducci, D., Fait, G., Fiorucci, A.,
Hauser, S., Pisciotta, A., Pranzini, G., Trevisan, M., Delgado Huertas, A., Ferrari, F.,
Frullini, R., Nisi, B., Offi, M., Vaselli, O., Vassallo, M., 2009. Assessment of nitrate contamination
risk: the Italian experience. J. Geochem. Explor. 102, 71–86.
Causape, J., Quilez, D., Aragues, R., 2006. Groundwater quality irrigation in CR-V irrigation
district (Bardenas I Spain): alternative scenarios to reduce off-site salt and nitrate
contamination. Agric. Water Manage. 84, 281–289.
Ceplecha, Z.L.,Waskom, R.M., Bauder, T.A., Sharkoff, J.L., Khosla, R., 2004. Vulnerability assessments
of Colorado ground water to nitrate contamination. Water Air Soil Pollut.
159, 373–394.
Civita, M., 1994. Le carte della vulnerabilità degli acquiferi all'inquinamento: teoria e
pratica. Quaderni di Tecniche di Protezione Ambientale, Sezione “Protezione delle
Acque Sotterranee”. 31. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, pp. 633–643.
Civita, M., De Maio, M., 1997. SINTACS. Un sistema parametrico per la valutazione e la
cartografia della vulnerabilita'degli acquiferi all'inquinamento. Metodologia and
Automatizzazione. vol. 60. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna.
Civita, M., De Maio, M., 2000. Valutazione e cartografia automatica della vulnerabilità
degli acquiferi all'inquinamento con il sistema parametrico — SINTACS R5 — a new
parametric system for the assessment and automatic mapping of ground water vulnerability
to contamination. Quaderni e Tecniche di Protezione ambientale. 72.
Pitagora, Bologna (226 pp.).
Dinar, A., Aillery, M.P., Moore, M.R., 1993. A dynamic model of soil salinity and drainage
generation in irrigated agriculture: a framework for policy analysis. Water Resour.
Res. 29, 1527–1537.
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000
establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Off. J. Eur.
Communities (L327), 0001–0073.
Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December
2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration. Off.
J. Eur. Union L372 (19), 19–31.
Directive 91/676/EEC, 1991. Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991
concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from
agricultural sources. Off. J. Eur. Communities L375, 1–13.
Draoui,M., Vias, J., Andreo, B., Targuisti, K., Stitou ElMessari, J., 2008. A comparative study
of four vulnerability mapping methods in a detritic aquifer under Mediterranean
climatic conditions. Environ. Geol. 54, 455–463.
Einstein, H.H., 1998. Special lecture: landslide risk assessment procedure. 5th
International Symposium on Landslide, Losanna, pp. 1075–1090.
FAO, 1998.World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, Rome.
Fierotti, G., 1988. Carta dei Suoli della Sicilia — scala 1:250.000 — Regione Siciliana,
Assessorato Territorio e Ambiente, Palermo.
Ghiglieri, G., Barbieri, G., Vernier, A., Carletti, A., Demurtas, N., Pinna, R., Pittalis, D., 2009.
Potential risks of nitrate pollution in aquifers from agricultural practices in the Nurra
region, northwestern Sardinia, Italy. J. Hydrol. 379, 339–350.
Gilli, G., Corrao, G., Favilli, S., 1984. Concentrations of nitrates in drinking water and incidence
of gastric carcinomas: first descriptive study of the Piemonte Region, Italy. Sci.
Total Environ. 34, 35–48.
Grasso, M., Pedley, H., 1988. The sedimentology and development of Terravecchia
Formation carbonates (Upper Miocene) in North-central Sicily: possible eustatic
influence on facies development. Sediment. Geol. 57, 131–149.
Gundogdu, K.S., Guney, I., 2007. Spatial analyses of groundwater level using universal
kriging. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 116, 49–55.
Holman, I.P., Palmer, R.C., Bellamy, P.H., Hollis, J.M., 2005. Validation of an intrinsic
groundwater pollution vulnerability methodology using a national nitrate database.
Hydrogeol. J. 13, 665–674.
ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica), 2010. http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx?
DataSetCode=DCCV_INDACQDOM.
Italian Legislative Decree 152/06, 2006. (Italia, Decreto legislativo 3 Aprile 2006, n. 152)
Norme in materia ambientale. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 88 del 14 aprile 2006.
Italian Legislative Decree 152/99, 1999. (Italia, Decreto Legislativo 11 Maggio 1999, n.
152) Norme e disposizioni sulla tutela delle acque dall'inquinamento. Gazzetta
Ufficiale n. 246 del 20 ottobre 2000.
Krijgsman, W., Zachariasse, W.J., 1994. The age of the Tortonian/Messinian boundary.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 121, 533–547.
Kumar, V., 2007. Optimal contour mapping of groundwater levels using universal
kriging — a case study. Hydrol. Sci. J. 52, 1038–1050.
Lake, I.R., Lovett, A.A., Hiscock, K.M., Betson, M., Foley, A., Sünnenberg, G., Evers, S.,
Fletcher, S., 2003. Evaluating factors influencing groundwater vulnerability to nitrate
pollution: developing the potential of GIS. J. Environ. Manag 68, 315–328.
Pacheco, F., Sanches Fernandes, L.F., 2013. The multivariate statistical structure of
DRASTIC model. J. Hydrol. 476, 442–459.
Padovani, L., Trevisan, M., 2002. I nitrati di origine agricola nelle acque sotterranee.
Un indice parametrico per l'individuazione di aree vulnerabili. Pitagora Ed,
Bologna, p. 120.
Pearson, K., 1896. Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution, III: regression,
heredity and panmixia. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 187, 253–318.
Roelsma, J., Hendriks, R.F.A., 2014. Comparative study of nitrate leaching models on a
regional scale. Sci. Total Environ. 499, 481–496.
Saidi, S., Bouri, S., Ben Dhia, H., Anselme, B., 2011. Assessment of groundwater risk using
intrinsic vulnerability and hazard mapping: application to Souassi aquifer, Tunisian
Sahel. Agric. Water Manage. 98, 1671–1682.
Schreiber, B.C., Friedman, G.M., Decima, A., Schreiber, E., 1976. The depositional environment
of the upper Miocene (Messinian) deposits of the Sicilian Basin. Sedimentology
23, 729–760.
Sener, E., Davraz, A., 2013. Assessment of groundwater vulnerability based on a modified
DRASTIC model, GIS and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method: the case of
Egirdir Lake basin (Isparta, Turkey). Hydrogeol. J. 21, 701–714.
Theodossiou, N., 1999. Evaluation of the distribution of hydraulic head in an aquifer using
the kriging method. Sci. J. Hell. Hydrotech. Assoc. Hydrotech. 9, 3–14.
Thirumalaivasan, D., Karmegam, M., Venugopal, K., 2003. AHPDRASTIC: software for
specific aquifer vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC model and GIS. Environ.
Model Softw. 18, 645–656.
Turc, L., 1961. Estimation of irrigation water requirements, potential evapotranspiration:
a simple climatic formula evolved up to date. Annals of Agronomy 12, 13–49.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. Environmental Indicators of Water Quality
in the United States. Office of Water, Washington, D.C. (EPA 841-R-96-002).
VanMaanen, J.M.S.,Welle, I.J., Hageman, G., Darllinga, J.W., Mertins, P.L.J.M., Klejans, J.C.S.,
1996. Nitrate contamination of drinking water: relationship with lymphocyte DNA
and urinary excretion of nitrosamine. Environ. Health Perspect. 104 (522-299).
Vrba, J., Zaporozec, A., 1994. Guidebook on Mapping Groundwater Vulnerability. IAH, Int.
Contrib. Hydrogeol., Heise, Hannover, p. 131.
Wakida, F.T., Lerner,D.N., 2005. Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrate: a review
and case study.Water Res. 39, 3–16.
Problem. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Agenzia per la protezione dell'ambiente e per i servizi tecnici (APAT), 2005.
La realizzazione in Italia del progetto europeo Corine Land Cover 2000. APAT
Report No. 36 Rome Italy.
Al-Adamat, R.A.N., Foster, I.D.L., Baban, S.M.J., 2003. Groundwater vulnerability and risk
mapping for the Basaltic aquifer of the Azraq basin of Jordan using GIS, remote
sensing and DRASTIC. Appl. Geogr. 23, 303–324.
Aller, L., Bennett, T., Lehr, J.H., Petty, R.J., Hackett, G., 1987. DRASTIC: a standardized system
for evaluating ground water pollution potential using hydrogeologic settings.
NWWA/EPA Series, EPA-600/2-87-035.
Antonakos, A.K., Lambrakis, N.J., 2007. Development and testing of three hybrid methods
for the assessment of aquifer vulnerability to nitrates, based on the drastic model, an
example from NE Korinthia, Greece. J. Hydrol. 333, 288–304.
APHA, AWWA, and WPCF, 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 18th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C. USA.
Baalousha, H., 2010. Assessment of a groundwater quality monitoring network using
vulnerability mapping and geostatistics: a case study from Heretaunga Plains,
New Zealand. Agric. Water Manag. 97, 240–246.
Boeing, H., 1991. Epidemiological research in stomach cancer: progress over the last ten
years. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 117, 113–143.
Bukowski, P., Bromek, T., Augustyniak, I., 2006. Using the DRASTIC system to assess the
vulnerability of ground water to pollution in mined areas of the upper Silesian coal
basin. Mine Water Environ. 25, 15–22.
Burrough, P.A., McDonnell, R.A., 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems.
Oxford University Press, Oxford (327 pp.).
Butler, R.W.H., Lickorish, W.H., 1997. Using high resolution stratigraphy to date fold and
thrust activity: examples from the Neogene of South-central Sicily. J. Geol. Soc.
Lond. 154, 633–643.
Butler, R.W.H., Lickorish,W.H., Grasso, M., Pedley, H.M., Ramberti, L., 1995. Tectonics
and sequence stratigraphy in Messinian basins, Sicily; constraints on the initiation
and termination of the Mediterranean salinity crisis. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
107, 425–439.
Capri, E., Civita, M., Corniello, A., Cusimano, G., De Maio, M., Ducci, D., Fait, G., Fiorucci, A.,
Hauser, S., Pisciotta, A., Pranzini, G., Trevisan, M., Delgado Huertas, A., Ferrari, F.,
Frullini, R., Nisi, B., Offi, M., Vaselli, O., Vassallo, M., 2009. Assessment of nitrate contamination
risk: the Italian experience. J. Geochem. Explor. 102, 71–86.
Causape, J., Quilez, D., Aragues, R., 2006. Groundwater quality irrigation in CR-V irrigation
district (Bardenas I Spain): alternative scenarios to reduce off-site salt and nitrate
contamination. Agric. Water Manage. 84, 281–289.
Ceplecha, Z.L.,Waskom, R.M., Bauder, T.A., Sharkoff, J.L., Khosla, R., 2004. Vulnerability assessments
of Colorado ground water to nitrate contamination. Water Air Soil Pollut.
159, 373–394.
Civita, M., 1994. Le carte della vulnerabilità degli acquiferi all'inquinamento: teoria e
pratica. Quaderni di Tecniche di Protezione Ambientale, Sezione “Protezione delle
Acque Sotterranee”. 31. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, pp. 633–643.
Civita, M., De Maio, M., 1997. SINTACS. Un sistema parametrico per la valutazione e la
cartografia della vulnerabilita'degli acquiferi all'inquinamento. Metodologia and
Automatizzazione. vol. 60. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna.
Civita, M., De Maio, M., 2000. Valutazione e cartografia automatica della vulnerabilità
degli acquiferi all'inquinamento con il sistema parametrico — SINTACS R5 — a new
parametric system for the assessment and automatic mapping of ground water vulnerability
to contamination. Quaderni e Tecniche di Protezione ambientale. 72.
Pitagora, Bologna (226 pp.).
Dinar, A., Aillery, M.P., Moore, M.R., 1993. A dynamic model of soil salinity and drainage
generation in irrigated agriculture: a framework for policy analysis. Water Resour.
Res. 29, 1527–1537.
Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000
establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Off. J. Eur.
Communities (L327), 0001–0073.
Directive 2006/118/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December
2006 on the protection of groundwater against pollution and deterioration. Off.
J. Eur. Union L372 (19), 19–31.
Directive 91/676/EEC, 1991. Council Directive 91/676/EEC of 12 December 1991
concerning the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrates from
agricultural sources. Off. J. Eur. Communities L375, 1–13.
Draoui,M., Vias, J., Andreo, B., Targuisti, K., Stitou ElMessari, J., 2008. A comparative study
of four vulnerability mapping methods in a detritic aquifer under Mediterranean
climatic conditions. Environ. Geol. 54, 455–463.
Einstein, H.H., 1998. Special lecture: landslide risk assessment procedure. 5th
International Symposium on Landslide, Losanna, pp. 1075–1090.
FAO, 1998.World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, Rome.
Fierotti, G., 1988. Carta dei Suoli della Sicilia — scala 1:250.000 — Regione Siciliana,
Assessorato Territorio e Ambiente, Palermo.
Ghiglieri, G., Barbieri, G., Vernier, A., Carletti, A., Demurtas, N., Pinna, R., Pittalis, D., 2009.
Potential risks of nitrate pollution in aquifers from agricultural practices in the Nurra
region, northwestern Sardinia, Italy. J. Hydrol. 379, 339–350.
Gilli, G., Corrao, G., Favilli, S., 1984. Concentrations of nitrates in drinking water and incidence
of gastric carcinomas: first descriptive study of the Piemonte Region, Italy. Sci.
Total Environ. 34, 35–48.
Grasso, M., Pedley, H., 1988. The sedimentology and development of Terravecchia
Formation carbonates (Upper Miocene) in North-central Sicily: possible eustatic
influence on facies development. Sediment. Geol. 57, 131–149.
Gundogdu, K.S., Guney, I., 2007. Spatial analyses of groundwater level using universal
kriging. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 116, 49–55.
Holman, I.P., Palmer, R.C., Bellamy, P.H., Hollis, J.M., 2005. Validation of an intrinsic
groundwater pollution vulnerability methodology using a national nitrate database.
Hydrogeol. J. 13, 665–674.
ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica), 2010. http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx?
DataSetCode=DCCV_INDACQDOM.
Italian Legislative Decree 152/06, 2006. (Italia, Decreto legislativo 3 Aprile 2006, n. 152)
Norme in materia ambientale. Gazzetta Ufficiale n. 88 del 14 aprile 2006.
Italian Legislative Decree 152/99, 1999. (Italia, Decreto Legislativo 11 Maggio 1999, n.
152) Norme e disposizioni sulla tutela delle acque dall'inquinamento. Gazzetta
Ufficiale n. 246 del 20 ottobre 2000.
Krijgsman, W., Zachariasse, W.J., 1994. The age of the Tortonian/Messinian boundary.
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 121, 533–547.
Kumar, V., 2007. Optimal contour mapping of groundwater levels using universal
kriging — a case study. Hydrol. Sci. J. 52, 1038–1050.
Lake, I.R., Lovett, A.A., Hiscock, K.M., Betson, M., Foley, A., Sünnenberg, G., Evers, S.,
Fletcher, S., 2003. Evaluating factors influencing groundwater vulnerability to nitrate
pollution: developing the potential of GIS. J. Environ. Manag 68, 315–328.
Pacheco, F., Sanches Fernandes, L.F., 2013. The multivariate statistical structure of
DRASTIC model. J. Hydrol. 476, 442–459.
Padovani, L., Trevisan, M., 2002. I nitrati di origine agricola nelle acque sotterranee.
Un indice parametrico per l'individuazione di aree vulnerabili. Pitagora Ed,
Bologna, p. 120.
Pearson, K., 1896. Mathematical contributions to the theory of evolution, III: regression,
heredity and panmixia. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 187, 253–318.
Roelsma, J., Hendriks, R.F.A., 2014. Comparative study of nitrate leaching models on a
regional scale. Sci. Total Environ. 499, 481–496.
Saidi, S., Bouri, S., Ben Dhia, H., Anselme, B., 2011. Assessment of groundwater risk using
intrinsic vulnerability and hazard mapping: application to Souassi aquifer, Tunisian
Sahel. Agric. Water Manage. 98, 1671–1682.
Schreiber, B.C., Friedman, G.M., Decima, A., Schreiber, E., 1976. The depositional environment
of the upper Miocene (Messinian) deposits of the Sicilian Basin. Sedimentology
23, 729–760.
Sener, E., Davraz, A., 2013. Assessment of groundwater vulnerability based on a modified
DRASTIC model, GIS and an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method: the case of
Egirdir Lake basin (Isparta, Turkey). Hydrogeol. J. 21, 701–714.
Theodossiou, N., 1999. Evaluation of the distribution of hydraulic head in an aquifer using
the kriging method. Sci. J. Hell. Hydrotech. Assoc. Hydrotech. 9, 3–14.
Thirumalaivasan, D., Karmegam, M., Venugopal, K., 2003. AHPDRASTIC: software for
specific aquifer vulnerability assessment using DRASTIC model and GIS. Environ.
Model Softw. 18, 645–656.
Turc, L., 1961. Estimation of irrigation water requirements, potential evapotranspiration:
a simple climatic formula evolved up to date. Annals of Agronomy 12, 13–49.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1996. Environmental Indicators of Water Quality
in the United States. Office of Water, Washington, D.C. (EPA 841-R-96-002).
VanMaanen, J.M.S.,Welle, I.J., Hageman, G., Darllinga, J.W., Mertins, P.L.J.M., Klejans, J.C.S.,
1996. Nitrate contamination of drinking water: relationship with lymphocyte DNA
and urinary excretion of nitrosamine. Environ. Health Perspect. 104 (522-299).
Vrba, J., Zaporozec, A., 1994. Guidebook on Mapping Groundwater Vulnerability. IAH, Int.
Contrib. Hydrogeol., Heise, Hannover, p. 131.
Wakida, F.T., Lerner,D.N., 2005. Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrate: a review
and case study.Water Res. 39, 3–16.
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