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Earthquakes and fault zone structure
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
4T. Fisica dei terremoti e scenari cosismici
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
4/42 (2014)
ISSN
0091-7613
Electronic ISSN
1943-2682
Publisher
Geological Society of America
Pages (printed)
343-346
Issued date
February 24, 2014
Keywords
Abstract
The characterization of fault zone structure and its evolution is essential for understanding
earthquake mechanics and rupture evolution. Most of our knowledge about fault structure is
derived from fi eld studies of ancient faults. By using earthquake locations, we reconstruct the
complex structure of a normal fault at a resolution directly comparable with fi eld geological
investigations. At the surface conjugate sets of faults are connected with the main fault plane,
which with depth shows bending and dilational jogs. Parallel slipping planes occur at the
base of the seismogenic volume, and minor synthetic and antithetic structures are widespread.
Fault zone thickness ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 km, while the damage density decays exponentially
away from the fault plane, with values comparable to those observed on fault outcrops. The
strong similarities between seismological and geological images of fault structure indicate that
earthquakes have a key role in the evolution of fault architecture
earthquake mechanics and rupture evolution. Most of our knowledge about fault structure is
derived from fi eld studies of ancient faults. By using earthquake locations, we reconstruct the
complex structure of a normal fault at a resolution directly comparable with fi eld geological
investigations. At the surface conjugate sets of faults are connected with the main fault plane,
which with depth shows bending and dilational jogs. Parallel slipping planes occur at the
base of the seismogenic volume, and minor synthetic and antithetic structures are widespread.
Fault zone thickness ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 km, while the damage density decays exponentially
away from the fault plane, with values comparable to those observed on fault outcrops. The
strong similarities between seismological and geological images of fault structure indicate that
earthquakes have a key role in the evolution of fault architecture
References
Allam, A.A., and Ben-Zion, Y., 2012, Seismic velocity
structures in the southern California plateboundary
environment from double-difference
tomography: Geophysical Journal International,
v. 190, p. 1181–1196, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X
.2012.05544.x.
Andrews, D.J., 2005, Rupture dynamics with energy
loss outside the slip zone: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 110, B01307, doi:10.1029
/2004JB003191.
Ben-Zion, Y., and Sammis, C.G., 2003, Characterization
of fault zones: Pure and Applied Geophysics,
v. 160, p. 677–715, doi:10.1007/PL00012554.
Bistacchi, A., Massironi, M., and Menegon, L.,
2010, Three-dimensional characterization of a
crustal-scale fault zone: The Pusteria and Sprechenstein
fault system (Eastern Alps): Journal
of Structural Geology, v. 32, p. 2022–2041,
doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.003.
Boatwright, J., and Cocco, M., 1996, Frictional constraints
on crustal faulting: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 101, no. B6, p. 13895–
13909, doi:10.1029/96JB00405.
Bonson, C.G., Childs, C., Walsh, J.J., Schopfer,
M.P.J., and Carboni, V., 2007, Geometric and
kinematic controls on the internal structure of
a large normal fault in massive limestones: The
Maghlaq fault, Malta: Journal of Structural
Geology, v. 29, p. 336–354, doi:10.1016/j.jsg
.2006.06.016.
Caine, J.S., Evans, J.P., and Forster, C.B., 1996, Fault
zone architecture and permeability structure:
Geology, v. 24, p. 1025–1028, doi:10.1130/0091
-7613(1996)024<1025:FZAAPS>2.3.CO;2.
Chester, F.M., and Logan, J.M., 1986, Implications
for mechanical-properties of brittle faults from
observations of the Punchbowl fault zone, California:
Pure and Applied Geophysics, v. 124,
p. 79–106, doi:10.1007/BF00875720.
Chiaraluce, L., 2012, Unravelling the complexity of
Apenninic extensional fault systems: A review
of the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake (Central Apennines,
Italy): Journal of Structural Geology,
v. 42, p. 2–18, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2012.06.007.
Chiaraluce, L., Valoroso, L., Piccinini, D., Di Stefano,
R., and De Gori, P., 2011, The anatomy of the 2009
L’Aquila normal fault system (central Italy) imaged
by high resolution foreshock and aftershock
locations: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 116, B12311, doi:10.1029/2011JB008352.
Cirella, A., Piatanesi, A., Tinti, E., Chini, M., and
Cocco, M., 2012, Complexity of the rupture process
during the 2009 L’Aquila, Italy, earthquake:
Geophysical Journal International, v. 190, p. 607–
621, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05505.x.
Cochran, E.S., Li, Y.-G., Shearer, P.M., Barbot, S.,
Fialko, Y., and Vidale, J.E., 2009, Seismic and
geodetic evidence for extensive, long-lived fault
damage zones: Geology, v. 37, p. 315–318,
doi:10.1130/G25306A.1.
Collettini, C., Barchi, M.R., Chiaraluce, L., Mirabella,
F., and Pucci, S., 2003, The Gubbio fault: Can
different methods give pictures of the same object?:
Journal of Geodynamics, v. 36, p. 51–66,
doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(03)00038-3.
Cowie, P.A., and Scholz, C.H., 1992, Growth of
faults by accumulation of seismic slip: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 11085–
11095, doi:10.1029/92JB00586.
De Paola, N., Collettini, C., Faulkner, D.R., and
Trippetta, F., 2008, Fault zone architecture and
deformation processes within evaporitic rocks
in the upper crust: Tectonics, v. 27, T4017,
doi:10.1029/2007TC002230.
Faulkner, D.R., Mitchell, T.M., Healy, D., and Heap,
M.J., 2006, Slip on ‘weak’ faults by the rotation
of regional stress in the fracture damage
zone: Nature, v. 444, p. 922–925, doi:10.1038
/nature05353.
Faulkner, D.R., Jackson, C.A.L., Lunn, R.J.,
Schlische, R.W., Shipton, Z.K., Wibberley,
C.A.J., and Withjack, M.O., 2010, A review of
recent developments concerning the structure,
mechanics and fl uid fl ow properties of fault
zones: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32,
p. 1557–1575, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.009.
Hauksson, E., 2010, Spatial separation of large earthquakes,
aftershocks, and background seismicity:
Analysis of interseismic and coseismic
seismicity patterns in southern California: Pure
and Applied Geophysics, v. 167, p. 979–997,
doi:10.1007/s00024-010-0083-3.
Improta, L., Villani, F., Bruno, P.P., Castiello, A.,
De Rosa, D., Varriale, F., Punzo, M., Brunori,
C.A., Civico, R., Pierdominici, S., Berlusconi,
A., and Giacomuzzi, G., 2012, High-resolution
controlled-source seismic tomography across
the Middle Aterno basin in the epicentral area of
the 2009, Mw 6.3, L’Aquila earthquake (central
Apennines, Italy): Italian Journal of Geoscience,
v. 131, p. 373–388, doi:10.3301/IJG.2011.35.
Long, J.J., and Imber, J., 2012, Strain compatibility
and fault linkage in relay zones on normal
faults: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 36,
p. 16–26, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2011.12.013.
Micklethwaite, S., and Cox, S.F., 2004, Fault-segment
rupture, aftershock-zone fl uid fl ow, and mineralization:
Geology, v. 32, p. 813–816, doi:10.1130
/G20559.1.
Mitchell, T.M., and Faulkner, D.R., 2012, Towards
quantifying the matrix permeability of fault
damage zones in low porosity rocks: Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, v. 339–340, p. 24–
31, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.05.014.
Powers, P.M., and Jordan, T.H., 2010, Distribution
of seismicity across strike-slip faults in California:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115,
B05305, doi:10.1029/2008JB006234.
Rubin, A.M., Gillard, D., and Got, J.L., 1999, Streaks
of microearthquakes along creeping faults: Nature,
v. 400, p. 635–641, doi:10.1038/23196.
Savage, H.M., and Brodsky, E.E., 2011, Collateral
damage: Evolution with displacement of fracture
distribution and secondary fault strands in fault
damage zones: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 116, B03405, doi:10.1029/2010JB007665.
Schaff, D.P., Bokelmann, G.H.R., Beroza, G.C.,
Waldhauser, F., and Ellsworth, W.L., 2002, High
resolution image of Calaveras fault seismicity:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 107, no. B9,
p. 2186–2201, doi:10.1029/2001JB000633.
Scholz, C.H., 2002, The mechanics of earthquakes
and faulting: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University
Press, 504 p.
Shipton, Z.K., Evans, J.P., and Thompson, L.B.,
2005, The geometry and thickness of deformation-band
fault core and its infl uence on sealing
characteristics of deformation-band fault
zones, in Sorkabi, R., and Tsuji, Y., eds., Faults,
fl uid fl ow, and petroleum traps: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 85,
p. 181–195, doi:10.1306/1033723M853135.
Sibson, R.H., 2000, Fluid involvement in normal
faulting: Journal of Geodynamics, v. 29, p. 469–
499, doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(99)00042-3.
Sibson, R.H., Ghisetti, F.C., and Crookbain, R.A.,
2012, Andersonian wrench faulting in a regional
stress fi eld during the 2010–2011 Canterbury,
New Zealand, earthquake sequence, in
Healy, D., et al., eds., Faulting fracturing and
igneous intrusion in the Earth’s crust: Geological
Society of London Special Publication 367,
p. 7–18, doi:10.1144/SP367.2.
Smith, S.A.F., Bistacchi, A., Mitchell, T.M., Mittempergher,
S., and Di Toro, G., 2013, The structure
of an exhumed intraplate seismogenic fault in
crystalline basement: Tectonophysics, v. 599,
p. 29–44, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2013.03.031.
Valoroso, L., Chiaraluce, L., Piccinini, D., Di Stefano,
R., Schaff, D., and Waldhauser, F., 2013, Radiography
of a normal fault system by 64,000
high-precision earthquake locations: The 2009
L’Aquila (central Italy) case study: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 118, p. 1156–1176,
doi:10.1002/jgrb.50130.
structures in the southern California plateboundary
environment from double-difference
tomography: Geophysical Journal International,
v. 190, p. 1181–1196, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X
.2012.05544.x.
Andrews, D.J., 2005, Rupture dynamics with energy
loss outside the slip zone: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 110, B01307, doi:10.1029
/2004JB003191.
Ben-Zion, Y., and Sammis, C.G., 2003, Characterization
of fault zones: Pure and Applied Geophysics,
v. 160, p. 677–715, doi:10.1007/PL00012554.
Bistacchi, A., Massironi, M., and Menegon, L.,
2010, Three-dimensional characterization of a
crustal-scale fault zone: The Pusteria and Sprechenstein
fault system (Eastern Alps): Journal
of Structural Geology, v. 32, p. 2022–2041,
doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.003.
Boatwright, J., and Cocco, M., 1996, Frictional constraints
on crustal faulting: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 101, no. B6, p. 13895–
13909, doi:10.1029/96JB00405.
Bonson, C.G., Childs, C., Walsh, J.J., Schopfer,
M.P.J., and Carboni, V., 2007, Geometric and
kinematic controls on the internal structure of
a large normal fault in massive limestones: The
Maghlaq fault, Malta: Journal of Structural
Geology, v. 29, p. 336–354, doi:10.1016/j.jsg
.2006.06.016.
Caine, J.S., Evans, J.P., and Forster, C.B., 1996, Fault
zone architecture and permeability structure:
Geology, v. 24, p. 1025–1028, doi:10.1130/0091
-7613(1996)024<1025:FZAAPS>2.3.CO;2.
Chester, F.M., and Logan, J.M., 1986, Implications
for mechanical-properties of brittle faults from
observations of the Punchbowl fault zone, California:
Pure and Applied Geophysics, v. 124,
p. 79–106, doi:10.1007/BF00875720.
Chiaraluce, L., 2012, Unravelling the complexity of
Apenninic extensional fault systems: A review
of the 2009 L’Aquila earthquake (Central Apennines,
Italy): Journal of Structural Geology,
v. 42, p. 2–18, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2012.06.007.
Chiaraluce, L., Valoroso, L., Piccinini, D., Di Stefano,
R., and De Gori, P., 2011, The anatomy of the 2009
L’Aquila normal fault system (central Italy) imaged
by high resolution foreshock and aftershock
locations: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 116, B12311, doi:10.1029/2011JB008352.
Cirella, A., Piatanesi, A., Tinti, E., Chini, M., and
Cocco, M., 2012, Complexity of the rupture process
during the 2009 L’Aquila, Italy, earthquake:
Geophysical Journal International, v. 190, p. 607–
621, doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2012.05505.x.
Cochran, E.S., Li, Y.-G., Shearer, P.M., Barbot, S.,
Fialko, Y., and Vidale, J.E., 2009, Seismic and
geodetic evidence for extensive, long-lived fault
damage zones: Geology, v. 37, p. 315–318,
doi:10.1130/G25306A.1.
Collettini, C., Barchi, M.R., Chiaraluce, L., Mirabella,
F., and Pucci, S., 2003, The Gubbio fault: Can
different methods give pictures of the same object?:
Journal of Geodynamics, v. 36, p. 51–66,
doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(03)00038-3.
Cowie, P.A., and Scholz, C.H., 1992, Growth of
faults by accumulation of seismic slip: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 11085–
11095, doi:10.1029/92JB00586.
De Paola, N., Collettini, C., Faulkner, D.R., and
Trippetta, F., 2008, Fault zone architecture and
deformation processes within evaporitic rocks
in the upper crust: Tectonics, v. 27, T4017,
doi:10.1029/2007TC002230.
Faulkner, D.R., Mitchell, T.M., Healy, D., and Heap,
M.J., 2006, Slip on ‘weak’ faults by the rotation
of regional stress in the fracture damage
zone: Nature, v. 444, p. 922–925, doi:10.1038
/nature05353.
Faulkner, D.R., Jackson, C.A.L., Lunn, R.J.,
Schlische, R.W., Shipton, Z.K., Wibberley,
C.A.J., and Withjack, M.O., 2010, A review of
recent developments concerning the structure,
mechanics and fl uid fl ow properties of fault
zones: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 32,
p. 1557–1575, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2010.06.009.
Hauksson, E., 2010, Spatial separation of large earthquakes,
aftershocks, and background seismicity:
Analysis of interseismic and coseismic
seismicity patterns in southern California: Pure
and Applied Geophysics, v. 167, p. 979–997,
doi:10.1007/s00024-010-0083-3.
Improta, L., Villani, F., Bruno, P.P., Castiello, A.,
De Rosa, D., Varriale, F., Punzo, M., Brunori,
C.A., Civico, R., Pierdominici, S., Berlusconi,
A., and Giacomuzzi, G., 2012, High-resolution
controlled-source seismic tomography across
the Middle Aterno basin in the epicentral area of
the 2009, Mw 6.3, L’Aquila earthquake (central
Apennines, Italy): Italian Journal of Geoscience,
v. 131, p. 373–388, doi:10.3301/IJG.2011.35.
Long, J.J., and Imber, J., 2012, Strain compatibility
and fault linkage in relay zones on normal
faults: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 36,
p. 16–26, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2011.12.013.
Micklethwaite, S., and Cox, S.F., 2004, Fault-segment
rupture, aftershock-zone fl uid fl ow, and mineralization:
Geology, v. 32, p. 813–816, doi:10.1130
/G20559.1.
Mitchell, T.M., and Faulkner, D.R., 2012, Towards
quantifying the matrix permeability of fault
damage zones in low porosity rocks: Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, v. 339–340, p. 24–
31, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.05.014.
Powers, P.M., and Jordan, T.H., 2010, Distribution
of seismicity across strike-slip faults in California:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115,
B05305, doi:10.1029/2008JB006234.
Rubin, A.M., Gillard, D., and Got, J.L., 1999, Streaks
of microearthquakes along creeping faults: Nature,
v. 400, p. 635–641, doi:10.1038/23196.
Savage, H.M., and Brodsky, E.E., 2011, Collateral
damage: Evolution with displacement of fracture
distribution and secondary fault strands in fault
damage zones: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 116, B03405, doi:10.1029/2010JB007665.
Schaff, D.P., Bokelmann, G.H.R., Beroza, G.C.,
Waldhauser, F., and Ellsworth, W.L., 2002, High
resolution image of Calaveras fault seismicity:
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 107, no. B9,
p. 2186–2201, doi:10.1029/2001JB000633.
Scholz, C.H., 2002, The mechanics of earthquakes
and faulting: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University
Press, 504 p.
Shipton, Z.K., Evans, J.P., and Thompson, L.B.,
2005, The geometry and thickness of deformation-band
fault core and its infl uence on sealing
characteristics of deformation-band fault
zones, in Sorkabi, R., and Tsuji, Y., eds., Faults,
fl uid fl ow, and petroleum traps: American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 85,
p. 181–195, doi:10.1306/1033723M853135.
Sibson, R.H., 2000, Fluid involvement in normal
faulting: Journal of Geodynamics, v. 29, p. 469–
499, doi:10.1016/S0264-3707(99)00042-3.
Sibson, R.H., Ghisetti, F.C., and Crookbain, R.A.,
2012, Andersonian wrench faulting in a regional
stress fi eld during the 2010–2011 Canterbury,
New Zealand, earthquake sequence, in
Healy, D., et al., eds., Faulting fracturing and
igneous intrusion in the Earth’s crust: Geological
Society of London Special Publication 367,
p. 7–18, doi:10.1144/SP367.2.
Smith, S.A.F., Bistacchi, A., Mitchell, T.M., Mittempergher,
S., and Di Toro, G., 2013, The structure
of an exhumed intraplate seismogenic fault in
crystalline basement: Tectonophysics, v. 599,
p. 29–44, doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2013.03.031.
Valoroso, L., Chiaraluce, L., Piccinini, D., Di Stefano,
R., Schaff, D., and Waldhauser, F., 2013, Radiography
of a normal fault system by 64,000
high-precision earthquake locations: The 2009
L’Aquila (central Italy) case study: Journal of
Geophysical Research, v. 118, p. 1156–1176,
doi:10.1002/jgrb.50130.
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