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Hydrogeochemistry of Alpine springs from North Slovenia: Insights from stable isotopes
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
4.5. Studi sul degassamento naturale e sui gas petroliferi
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
No
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/300-301 (2012)
ISSN
0009-2541
Electronic ISSN
1872-6836
Publisher
Elsevier Science Limited
Pages (printed)
40-54
Issued date
March 18, 2012
Abstract
Springwater chemistry and carbon cycling in our study mainly depend on geological composition of the aquifer.
The investigated Alpine springs in Slovenia represent waters strongly influenced by chemicalweathering ofMesozoic
limestone and dolomite, only one spring was located in Permo-Carboniferous shales. The carbon isotopic
composition of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and suspended organic carbon (POC) as well as major solute
concentrations yielded insights into the origin of carbon in Alpine spring waters. The major solute composition
was dominated by carbonic acid dissolution of calcite. Waters were generally close to saturation with respect
to calcite, and dissolved CO2 was up to fortyfold supersaturated relative to the atmosphere. δ13 C of DIC indicates
the portion of soil CO2 contributed in water and is related with soil thickness of infiltrating water in aquifer and
could be therefore used as a tool for vulnerability assessment. The δ13 C of DIC ranged from−15.8‰ to −1.5‰
and indicated less and more vulnerable aquifers. Mass balances of carbon for spring waters draining carbonate
rocks suggest that carbonate dissolution contributes from approximately 49% to 86% and degradation of organic
matter from 13.7% to 51.4%, depending on spring and its relation with rock type, soil environment, and geomorphic
position. Stable oxygen isotope composition of water (δ18OH2O), and tritium values range from −12.2 to
−9.3‰and from6.4 to 9.8 TU, respectively and indicate recharge frommodern precipitation. According to active
decay of tritiumand tritiumin modern precipitation the age of spring waters are estimated to be about 2.6 years
for springs located in Julian Alps, about 5 years for springs located in Karavanke and about 5 years for springs located
in Kamniško–Savinjske Alps.
The investigated Alpine springs in Slovenia represent waters strongly influenced by chemicalweathering ofMesozoic
limestone and dolomite, only one spring was located in Permo-Carboniferous shales. The carbon isotopic
composition of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and suspended organic carbon (POC) as well as major solute
concentrations yielded insights into the origin of carbon in Alpine spring waters. The major solute composition
was dominated by carbonic acid dissolution of calcite. Waters were generally close to saturation with respect
to calcite, and dissolved CO2 was up to fortyfold supersaturated relative to the atmosphere. δ13 C of DIC indicates
the portion of soil CO2 contributed in water and is related with soil thickness of infiltrating water in aquifer and
could be therefore used as a tool for vulnerability assessment. The δ13 C of DIC ranged from−15.8‰ to −1.5‰
and indicated less and more vulnerable aquifers. Mass balances of carbon for spring waters draining carbonate
rocks suggest that carbonate dissolution contributes from approximately 49% to 86% and degradation of organic
matter from 13.7% to 51.4%, depending on spring and its relation with rock type, soil environment, and geomorphic
position. Stable oxygen isotope composition of water (δ18OH2O), and tritium values range from −12.2 to
−9.3‰and from6.4 to 9.8 TU, respectively and indicate recharge frommodern precipitation. According to active
decay of tritiumand tritiumin modern precipitation the age of spring waters are estimated to be about 2.6 years
for springs located in Julian Alps, about 5 years for springs located in Karavanke and about 5 years for springs located
in Kamniško–Savinjske Alps.
References
Atekwana, E.A., Krishnamurthy, R.V., 1998. Seasonal variations of dissolved inorganic
carbon and δ13 C of surface waters: application of a modified gas evaluation technique.
Journal of Hydrology 205, 260–278.
Barth, J.A.C., Cronin, A.A., Dunlop, J., Kalin, R.M., 2003. Influence of carbonates on the
riverine carbon cycle in an anthropogenically dominated catchment basin: evidence
from major elements and stable carbon isotopes in the Lagan River (N. Ireland).
Chemical Geology 200, 203–216.
Bottcher, J., Strebel, O., Voerkelius, S., Schmidt, H.L., 1990. Using isotope fractionation of
nitrate nitrogen and nitrate oxygen for evaluation of denitrification in a sandy
aquifer. Hydrogeology Journal 114, 413–424.
Brenčič, M., Poltnig, W., 2008. Podzemne vode Karavank : skrito bogastvo=Grundwasser
der Karawanken Versteckter Schatz, Geološki zavod Slovenije, Ljubljana, Joanneum
Research Forschungsgesellschaft, Gratz (in Slovene, in German).
Brenčič, M., Prestor, J., Kompare, B., Matoz, H., Kranjc, S., 2009. Integrated approach to
delineation of drinking water protection zones. Geologija 52 (2), 175–182.
Buser, S., 1987. Geological map of Slovenia. Encyclopedia of Slovenia No. 8. Mladinska
knjiga, Ljubljana (in Slovene).
Cartwright, I., Weaver, T., Tweed, S., Ahearne, D., Cooper, M., Czapnik, C., Tranter, J.,
2000. O, H, C isotope geochemistry of carbonated mineral springs in central Victoria,
Australia: sources of gas and water–rock interactions during basaltic volcanism.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70, 257–261.
Clark, I., Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, New York.
Clesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E., Eaton, A.D., 1998. Standard methods for the examination
of water and wastewater, 20th edition. APHA, AWWA, WEF, Baltimore.
Coplen, T.B., 1994. Reporting and stable hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen isotopic abundances.
Pure and Applied Chemistry 66, 273–276.
Coplen, T.B., Wildman, J.D., Chen, J., 1991. Improvements in the gaseous hydrogen–
water equilibration technique for hydrogen isotope ratio analysis. Analytical
Chemistry 63, 910–912.
Craig, H., 1961. Isotopic variation in meteoric waters. Science 133, 1702–1703.
Deines, P., Langmuir, D., Harmon, R.S., 1974. Stable carbon isotope ratios and the existence
of a gas phase in the evolution of carbonate groundwaters. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 38, 1147–1164.
Drever, J.I., 1988. The geochemistry of Natural Waters. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey: Englewood
Cliffs, p. 473.
Drew, D., Hoetzl, H., 1999. Karst hydrogeology and human activities. Impacts, consequences
and implications. IAH-International contributions to hydrogeology, A.A.
Balkema. Brookfield, Rotterdam, p. 322.
Epstein, S., Mayeda, T., 1953. Variations of 18O contents of water from natural sources.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4, 213–224.
Frantar, P., 2007. Geographical overview of water balance of Slovenia 1971–2000 by
main river basins. Acta Geographica Slovenica 47, 25–45.
Fry, B., Ruf, W., Gest, H., Hayes, J.M., 1988. Sulphur isotope effects associated with oxidation
of sulphide by O2 in aqueous solution. Chemical Geology (Isotope Geoscience
Section) 73, 205–210.
Glavič-Cindro, D., 2011. Yearly report on gamma- and beta ray emmiters activity measurements.
No 8/21, Jožef Stefan Institute (working report). 25 pp.
Gröning, M., Rozanski, K., 2003. Uncertainty assessment of environmental tritium measurements
in water. Accreditation and Quality Assurance 8, 359–366.
Habič, P., 1969. Hidogeografska rajonizacija krasa v Sloveniji. KRS Jugoslavije 6, 79–97
Zagreb (in Slovene).
Herman, J.S., Lorah, M.M., 1987. CO2 outgassing and calcite precipitation in Falling
Spring Creek, Virginia, U. S. A. Chemical Geology 62, 251–262.
Ittekot, V., 1988. Global trends in the nature of organic matter in the river suspensions.
Nature 332, 436–438.
Janža, M., 2010. Hydrological modeling in the karst area, Rižana spring catchment, Slovenia.
Environmental Earth Science 61, 909–920.Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., 2007. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the river Sava watershed
in Slovenia. Geologija 50, 157–177.
Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., Mrak, T., 2007a. Characteristics of suspended matter in the River
Sava watershed, Slovenia. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies 43,
369–385.
Kanduč, T., Szramek, K., Ogrinc, N., Walter, L.M., 2007b. Origin and cycling of riverine
inorganic carbon in the Sava River watershed (Slovenia) inferred from major solutes
and stable carbon isotopes. Biogeochemistry 86, 137–154.
Katz, B.G., Coplen, T.B., Bullen, T.D., Davis, J.H., 1997. Use of chemical and isotopic
Tracers to characterize the interactions between ground water and surface water
in mantled karst. Ground Water 36 (6), 1014–1028.
Kendall, C., Sklash, M.G., Bullen, T.D., 1995. Isotope tracers of water and solute sources
in catchments. In: Trudgill, S.T. (Ed.), Solute, Modelling in Catchment System.
Wiley, Somerset, NJ, pp. 261–303.
Kennedy, V.C., Kendall, C., Zellweger, G.W., Wyerman, T.A., Avanzino, R.J., 1986. Determination
of the components of stormflow using water chemistry and environmental
isotopes, Mattole River Basin, California. Journal of Hydrology 84, 107–140.
Klass, D.L., 1984. Methane from anaerobic fermentation. Science 223, 1021–1028.
Larsen, D., Swihart, G.H., Xiao, Y., 2001. Hydrochemistry and isotope composition of
springs in the Tecopa basin, southeastern California, USA. Chemical Geology 179,
17–35.
Lesniak, P.M., Sakai, H., 1989. Carbon isotope fractionation between dissolved carbonate
(CO3
2−) and CO2 (g) at 25° and 40 °C. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 95,
297–301.
Machel, H.G., Krouse, H.R., Sassen, R., 1995. Products and distinguishing criteria of bacterial
and thermochemical sulphate reduction. Applied Geochemistry 10, 373–389.
Mayo, A.L., Loucks, M.D., 1995. Solute and isotopic geochemistry and groundwater flow
in the central Wasatch Range, Utah. Journal of Hydrology 172, 31–59.
Miyajima, T., Yamada, Y., Hanba, Y.T., 1995. Determining the stable isotope ratio of total
dissolved inorganic carbon in lake water by GC/C/IRMS. Limnology and Oceanography
40 (5), 994–1000.
Mook, W.G., Bommerson, J.C., Staverman, W.H., 1974. Carbon isotope fractionation between
dissolved bicarbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 22, 169–176.
O′Leary, M.H., 1988. Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Bioscience 38, 328.
Ogrin, D., 1998. Podnebje=Climate. In: Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Adamič, M., Perko, D.V.
(Eds.), Geografski atlas, Ljubljana, DZS. 110–111 pp. (in Slovene).
Ogrinc, N., Kanduč, T., Stichler, W., Vreča, P., 2008. Spatial and seasonal variations in
δ18O and δD values in the river Sava in Slovenia. Journal of Hydrology 359,
303–312.
Ogrinc, N., Kocman, D., Vreča, P., Kanduč, T., Žigon, S., 2010. Isotope investigation of the
river Sava in Slovenia: long-term isotopic monitoring of surface water and precipitation
at selected sites. IJS working report, 10628.
Parkhurst, D.L., Appelo, C.A.J., 1999. User's guide to PHREEQC (version 2) – a computer
program for speciation, batch – reaction, one – dimensional transport, and inverse
geochemical calculations. Water – Resources Investigations Report, pp. 99–4259.
Petrič, M., 2004. Alpine karst waters in Slovenia. Acta Carsologica 33, 11–24.
Plastino, W., Chereji, I., Cuna, S., Kaihola, L., Felice, P., Lupsa, N., Balas, G., Mirel, V.,
Berdea, P., Baciu, C., 2007. Tritium in water electrolytic enrichment and liquid scintillation
counting. Radiation Measurements 42, 68–73.
Romanek, C.S., Grossman, E.L., Morse, J.W., 1992. Carbon isotopic fractionation in synthetic
aragonite and calcite: effects temperature and precipitation rate. Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta 46, 419–430.
Sakai, H., 1968. Isotopic properties of sulphur compounds in hydrothermal processes.
Geochemical Journal 2, 29–49.
Spötl, C., 2005. A robust and fast method of sampling and analysis of δ13C of dissolved
inorganic carbon in ground waters. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies
41, 217–221.
Szramek, K., McIntosh, J.C., Williams, E.L., Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., Walter, L.M., 2007. Relative
weathering intensity of calcite versus dolomite in carbonate-bearing temperate
zone watersheds: carbonate geochemistry and fluxes from catchments within
the St. Lawrence and Danube river basins. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
(G3) 8, 1–26.
Taylor, C.B., Brown, L.J., Cunliffe, J.J., Davidson, P.W., 1992. Environmental tritium and
18O in a hydrological study of the Wairau Plain and its contributing mountain
catchments, Marlborough, New Zeland. Journal of Hydrology 138, 269–319.
Ter Braak, C.J.F., Šmilauer, P., 2002. CANOCO, version 4.5 2002.
Van Abs, D.J., Stanuikynas, T.J., 2000.Water Budget in the Raritan River Basin. A Technical
Report for the Raritan Basin Watershed Management Project New JerseyWater Supply
Authority. Internet: http://www.raritanbasin.org/Reports/WaterBudgetReport.
pdf. 23.1.2006.
Villa, M., Mannjón, G., 2004. Low-level measurements of tritium in water. Applied Radiation
and Isotopes 61, 319–323.
Vreča, P., Kanduč, T., Žigon, S., Trkov, Z., 2004. Isotopic composition of precipitation in
Slovenia. Isotopic composition of precipitation in the Mediterranean basin in relation
to air circulation pattern and climate: final report of a coordinated research
project 2000–2004, (IARA-TECDOC, 1453). IAEA, Vienna, pp. 157–172.
Vreča, P., Krajcar Bronić, I., Horvatinčić, N., Barešić, J., 2006. Isotopic characteristics of
precipitation in Slovenia and Croatia: comparison of continental and maritime stations.
Journal of Hydrology 330, 457–469.
Yang, C., Telmer, K., Veizer, J., 1996. Chemical dynamics of the ‘St. Lawrance’ riverine
system: δDH2O, δ18OH2O, δ13CDIC, δ34Ssulfate, and dissolved 87Sr/86Sr. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 60, 851–866.
Yee, P., Edgett, R., Eberhardt, A., 1990. Great lakes – St. Lawrence River regulation; what
it means and how it works. Joint publication of
carbon and δ13 C of surface waters: application of a modified gas evaluation technique.
Journal of Hydrology 205, 260–278.
Barth, J.A.C., Cronin, A.A., Dunlop, J., Kalin, R.M., 2003. Influence of carbonates on the
riverine carbon cycle in an anthropogenically dominated catchment basin: evidence
from major elements and stable carbon isotopes in the Lagan River (N. Ireland).
Chemical Geology 200, 203–216.
Bottcher, J., Strebel, O., Voerkelius, S., Schmidt, H.L., 1990. Using isotope fractionation of
nitrate nitrogen and nitrate oxygen for evaluation of denitrification in a sandy
aquifer. Hydrogeology Journal 114, 413–424.
Brenčič, M., Poltnig, W., 2008. Podzemne vode Karavank : skrito bogastvo=Grundwasser
der Karawanken Versteckter Schatz, Geološki zavod Slovenije, Ljubljana, Joanneum
Research Forschungsgesellschaft, Gratz (in Slovene, in German).
Brenčič, M., Prestor, J., Kompare, B., Matoz, H., Kranjc, S., 2009. Integrated approach to
delineation of drinking water protection zones. Geologija 52 (2), 175–182.
Buser, S., 1987. Geological map of Slovenia. Encyclopedia of Slovenia No. 8. Mladinska
knjiga, Ljubljana (in Slovene).
Cartwright, I., Weaver, T., Tweed, S., Ahearne, D., Cooper, M., Czapnik, C., Tranter, J.,
2000. O, H, C isotope geochemistry of carbonated mineral springs in central Victoria,
Australia: sources of gas and water–rock interactions during basaltic volcanism.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 69–70, 257–261.
Clark, I., Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, New York.
Clesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E., Eaton, A.D., 1998. Standard methods for the examination
of water and wastewater, 20th edition. APHA, AWWA, WEF, Baltimore.
Coplen, T.B., 1994. Reporting and stable hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen isotopic abundances.
Pure and Applied Chemistry 66, 273–276.
Coplen, T.B., Wildman, J.D., Chen, J., 1991. Improvements in the gaseous hydrogen–
water equilibration technique for hydrogen isotope ratio analysis. Analytical
Chemistry 63, 910–912.
Craig, H., 1961. Isotopic variation in meteoric waters. Science 133, 1702–1703.
Deines, P., Langmuir, D., Harmon, R.S., 1974. Stable carbon isotope ratios and the existence
of a gas phase in the evolution of carbonate groundwaters. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 38, 1147–1164.
Drever, J.I., 1988. The geochemistry of Natural Waters. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey: Englewood
Cliffs, p. 473.
Drew, D., Hoetzl, H., 1999. Karst hydrogeology and human activities. Impacts, consequences
and implications. IAH-International contributions to hydrogeology, A.A.
Balkema. Brookfield, Rotterdam, p. 322.
Epstein, S., Mayeda, T., 1953. Variations of 18O contents of water from natural sources.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4, 213–224.
Frantar, P., 2007. Geographical overview of water balance of Slovenia 1971–2000 by
main river basins. Acta Geographica Slovenica 47, 25–45.
Fry, B., Ruf, W., Gest, H., Hayes, J.M., 1988. Sulphur isotope effects associated with oxidation
of sulphide by O2 in aqueous solution. Chemical Geology (Isotope Geoscience
Section) 73, 205–210.
Glavič-Cindro, D., 2011. Yearly report on gamma- and beta ray emmiters activity measurements.
No 8/21, Jožef Stefan Institute (working report). 25 pp.
Gröning, M., Rozanski, K., 2003. Uncertainty assessment of environmental tritium measurements
in water. Accreditation and Quality Assurance 8, 359–366.
Habič, P., 1969. Hidogeografska rajonizacija krasa v Sloveniji. KRS Jugoslavije 6, 79–97
Zagreb (in Slovene).
Herman, J.S., Lorah, M.M., 1987. CO2 outgassing and calcite precipitation in Falling
Spring Creek, Virginia, U. S. A. Chemical Geology 62, 251–262.
Ittekot, V., 1988. Global trends in the nature of organic matter in the river suspensions.
Nature 332, 436–438.
Janža, M., 2010. Hydrological modeling in the karst area, Rižana spring catchment, Slovenia.
Environmental Earth Science 61, 909–920.Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., 2007. Hydrogeochemical characteristics of the river Sava watershed
in Slovenia. Geologija 50, 157–177.
Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., Mrak, T., 2007a. Characteristics of suspended matter in the River
Sava watershed, Slovenia. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies 43,
369–385.
Kanduč, T., Szramek, K., Ogrinc, N., Walter, L.M., 2007b. Origin and cycling of riverine
inorganic carbon in the Sava River watershed (Slovenia) inferred from major solutes
and stable carbon isotopes. Biogeochemistry 86, 137–154.
Katz, B.G., Coplen, T.B., Bullen, T.D., Davis, J.H., 1997. Use of chemical and isotopic
Tracers to characterize the interactions between ground water and surface water
in mantled karst. Ground Water 36 (6), 1014–1028.
Kendall, C., Sklash, M.G., Bullen, T.D., 1995. Isotope tracers of water and solute sources
in catchments. In: Trudgill, S.T. (Ed.), Solute, Modelling in Catchment System.
Wiley, Somerset, NJ, pp. 261–303.
Kennedy, V.C., Kendall, C., Zellweger, G.W., Wyerman, T.A., Avanzino, R.J., 1986. Determination
of the components of stormflow using water chemistry and environmental
isotopes, Mattole River Basin, California. Journal of Hydrology 84, 107–140.
Klass, D.L., 1984. Methane from anaerobic fermentation. Science 223, 1021–1028.
Larsen, D., Swihart, G.H., Xiao, Y., 2001. Hydrochemistry and isotope composition of
springs in the Tecopa basin, southeastern California, USA. Chemical Geology 179,
17–35.
Lesniak, P.M., Sakai, H., 1989. Carbon isotope fractionation between dissolved carbonate
(CO3
2−) and CO2 (g) at 25° and 40 °C. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 95,
297–301.
Machel, H.G., Krouse, H.R., Sassen, R., 1995. Products and distinguishing criteria of bacterial
and thermochemical sulphate reduction. Applied Geochemistry 10, 373–389.
Mayo, A.L., Loucks, M.D., 1995. Solute and isotopic geochemistry and groundwater flow
in the central Wasatch Range, Utah. Journal of Hydrology 172, 31–59.
Miyajima, T., Yamada, Y., Hanba, Y.T., 1995. Determining the stable isotope ratio of total
dissolved inorganic carbon in lake water by GC/C/IRMS. Limnology and Oceanography
40 (5), 994–1000.
Mook, W.G., Bommerson, J.C., Staverman, W.H., 1974. Carbon isotope fractionation between
dissolved bicarbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 22, 169–176.
O′Leary, M.H., 1988. Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. Bioscience 38, 328.
Ogrin, D., 1998. Podnebje=Climate. In: Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Adamič, M., Perko, D.V.
(Eds.), Geografski atlas, Ljubljana, DZS. 110–111 pp. (in Slovene).
Ogrinc, N., Kanduč, T., Stichler, W., Vreča, P., 2008. Spatial and seasonal variations in
δ18O and δD values in the river Sava in Slovenia. Journal of Hydrology 359,
303–312.
Ogrinc, N., Kocman, D., Vreča, P., Kanduč, T., Žigon, S., 2010. Isotope investigation of the
river Sava in Slovenia: long-term isotopic monitoring of surface water and precipitation
at selected sites. IJS working report, 10628.
Parkhurst, D.L., Appelo, C.A.J., 1999. User's guide to PHREEQC (version 2) – a computer
program for speciation, batch – reaction, one – dimensional transport, and inverse
geochemical calculations. Water – Resources Investigations Report, pp. 99–4259.
Petrič, M., 2004. Alpine karst waters in Slovenia. Acta Carsologica 33, 11–24.
Plastino, W., Chereji, I., Cuna, S., Kaihola, L., Felice, P., Lupsa, N., Balas, G., Mirel, V.,
Berdea, P., Baciu, C., 2007. Tritium in water electrolytic enrichment and liquid scintillation
counting. Radiation Measurements 42, 68–73.
Romanek, C.S., Grossman, E.L., Morse, J.W., 1992. Carbon isotopic fractionation in synthetic
aragonite and calcite: effects temperature and precipitation rate. Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta 46, 419–430.
Sakai, H., 1968. Isotopic properties of sulphur compounds in hydrothermal processes.
Geochemical Journal 2, 29–49.
Spötl, C., 2005. A robust and fast method of sampling and analysis of δ13C of dissolved
inorganic carbon in ground waters. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies
41, 217–221.
Szramek, K., McIntosh, J.C., Williams, E.L., Kanduč, T., Ogrinc, N., Walter, L.M., 2007. Relative
weathering intensity of calcite versus dolomite in carbonate-bearing temperate
zone watersheds: carbonate geochemistry and fluxes from catchments within
the St. Lawrence and Danube river basins. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
(G3) 8, 1–26.
Taylor, C.B., Brown, L.J., Cunliffe, J.J., Davidson, P.W., 1992. Environmental tritium and
18O in a hydrological study of the Wairau Plain and its contributing mountain
catchments, Marlborough, New Zeland. Journal of Hydrology 138, 269–319.
Ter Braak, C.J.F., Šmilauer, P., 2002. CANOCO, version 4.5 2002.
Van Abs, D.J., Stanuikynas, T.J., 2000.Water Budget in the Raritan River Basin. A Technical
Report for the Raritan Basin Watershed Management Project New JerseyWater Supply
Authority. Internet: http://www.raritanbasin.org/Reports/WaterBudgetReport.
pdf. 23.1.2006.
Villa, M., Mannjón, G., 2004. Low-level measurements of tritium in water. Applied Radiation
and Isotopes 61, 319–323.
Vreča, P., Kanduč, T., Žigon, S., Trkov, Z., 2004. Isotopic composition of precipitation in
Slovenia. Isotopic composition of precipitation in the Mediterranean basin in relation
to air circulation pattern and climate: final report of a coordinated research
project 2000–2004, (IARA-TECDOC, 1453). IAEA, Vienna, pp. 157–172.
Vreča, P., Krajcar Bronić, I., Horvatinčić, N., Barešić, J., 2006. Isotopic characteristics of
precipitation in Slovenia and Croatia: comparison of continental and maritime stations.
Journal of Hydrology 330, 457–469.
Yang, C., Telmer, K., Veizer, J., 1996. Chemical dynamics of the ‘St. Lawrance’ riverine
system: δDH2O, δ18OH2O, δ13CDIC, δ34Ssulfate, and dissolved 87Sr/86Sr. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta 60, 851–866.
Yee, P., Edgett, R., Eberhardt, A., 1990. Great lakes – St. Lawrence River regulation; what
it means and how it works. Joint publication of
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