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Lithosphere–asthenosphere viscosity contrast and decoupling
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
3.3. Geodinamica e struttura dell'interno della Terra
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/189 (2011)
Publisher
Elsevier
Pages (printed)
1-8
Issued date
November 2011
Alternative Location
Abstract
The coupling/decoupling between the lithosphere and asthenosphere has significant implications for
understanding many important aspects of plate tectonics and geodynamics. To drive plate motion, mantle
convection requires coupling at the lithosphere–asthenosphere (LA) interface. Meanwhile a low viscosity
layer in the asthenosphere is indicative of possible LA decoupling. Here we present an analytical
model of a stratified uppermost mantle structure disturbed by a long-wavelength perturbation (such
as the body tide) to analyse the influence of LA viscosity contrast on the growth (or decay) rates of the
perturbation. We show that the viscosity contrast of 8–10 orders of magnitude would allow a relative
motion of the lithosphere over the asthenosphere due to the long-wavelength perturbations at the rate
of about 10 cm yr 1. These constrains on the viscosity contrast can allow to discriminate between the LA
coupling and decoupling. The growing seismic and mineralogical evidences of a possible ultra low viscosity
asthenospheric layer may be indicative of the LA decoupling and their relative motions due to longwavelength
perturbations, and a contribution of the tidal drag on the plate motion should not be
neglected in the regions of high viscosity contrasts.
understanding many important aspects of plate tectonics and geodynamics. To drive plate motion, mantle
convection requires coupling at the lithosphere–asthenosphere (LA) interface. Meanwhile a low viscosity
layer in the asthenosphere is indicative of possible LA decoupling. Here we present an analytical
model of a stratified uppermost mantle structure disturbed by a long-wavelength perturbation (such
as the body tide) to analyse the influence of LA viscosity contrast on the growth (or decay) rates of the
perturbation. We show that the viscosity contrast of 8–10 orders of magnitude would allow a relative
motion of the lithosphere over the asthenosphere due to the long-wavelength perturbations at the rate
of about 10 cm yr 1. These constrains on the viscosity contrast can allow to discriminate between the LA
coupling and decoupling. The growing seismic and mineralogical evidences of a possible ultra low viscosity
asthenospheric layer may be indicative of the LA decoupling and their relative motions due to longwavelength
perturbations, and a contribution of the tidal drag on the plate motion should not be
neglected in the regions of high viscosity contrasts.
Sponsors
Research
supported by DFG IS203/1-1, Miur-Prin 2008, CNR Eurocores,
TopoEurope, and RASP Program No. 23.
supported by DFG IS203/1-1, Miur-Prin 2008, CNR Eurocores,
TopoEurope, and RASP Program No. 23.
References
Adám, A., Panza, G.F., 1989. A critical review of the magnetotelluric information on
the upper mantle. Acta Geod. Geoph. Mont. Hung. 24, 395–415.
Anderson, D.L., 2006. Speculations on the nature and cause of mantle heterogeneity.
Tectonophysics 416, 7–22.
Anderson, D.L., 2007. New Theory of the Earth, Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, D.L., 2010. Hawaii, boundary layers and ambient mantle-geophysical
constraints. J. Petrology, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egq068.
Becker, T.W., 2008. Azimuthal seismic anisotropy constrains net rotation of the
lithosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L05303.
Bokelmann, G.H., 2002. Which forces drive North America? Geology 30, 1027–1030.
Boschi, L., Ampueroa, J.-P., Peter, D., Maia, P.M., Soldati, G., Giardini, D., 2007.
Petascale computing and resolution in global seismic tomography. Phys. Earth
Planet. Int. 163, 245–250.
Bostrom, R.C., 1971. Westward displacement of the lithosphere. Nature 234, 356–
538.
Calcagnile, G., Panza, G.F., 1987. Properties of the lithosphere–asthenosphere
system in Europe with a view toward Earth conductivity. Pure Appl. Geophys.
125, 241–254.
Cathles, L.M., 1975. The Viscosity of the Earth’s Mantle. Princeton University Press.
Craig, C.H., McKenzie, D., 1986. The existence of a thin low-viscosity layer beneath
the lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 78 (4), 420–426.
Crespi, M., Cuffaro, M., Doglioni, C., Giannone, F., Riguzzi, F., 2007. Space geodesy
validation of the global lithospheric flow. Geophys. J. Int. 168, 491–506.
Cuffaro, M., Doglioni, C., 2007. Global Kinematics in the deep versus shallow hotspot
reference frames. In: Foulger, G.R., Jurdy, D.M. (Eds.), Plates, Plumes, and
Planetary Processes, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 430, pp. 359–374.
Dingwell, D.B., Courtial, P., Giordano, D., Nichols, A.R.L., 2004. Viscosity of peridotite
liquid. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 226, 127–138.
Doglioni, C., 1993. Geological evidence for a global tectonic polarity. J. Geol. Soc.
150, 991–1002.
Doglioni, C., Green, D., Mongelli, F., 2005. On the shallow origin of hotspots and
the westward drift of the lithosphere. In: Foulger, G.R., Natland, J.H., Presnall, D.C.,
Anderson, D.L. (Eds.), Plates, Plumes and Paradigms, GSA Sp. Paper, 388, pp. 735–
749.
Doglioni, C., Carminati, E., Cuffaro, M., Scrocca, D., 2007. Subduction kinematics and
dynamic constraints. Earth Sci. Rev. 83, 125–175.
Dziewonski, A.M., Anderson, D.L., 1981. Preliminary reference Earth model. Phys.
Earth Planet. Inter. 25, 297–356.
Fletcher, R.C., 1974. Wavelength selection in the folding of a single layer with power
law rheology. Am. J. Sci. 274, 1029–1043.
Green, D.H., Hibberson, W.O., Kovacs, I., Rosenthal, A., 2010. Water and its influence
on the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary. Nature 467, 448–451.
Gripp, A.E., Gordon, R.G., 2002. Young tracks of hotspots and current plate velocities.
Geophys. J. Int. 150, 321–361.
Gung, Y., Panning, M., Romanowicz, B., 2003. Global anisotropy and the thickness of
continents. Nature 422, 707–710.
Harris, J.W., Stocker, H., 1998. Handbook of Mathematics and Computational
Science. Springer, New York.
Heinson, G., 1999. Electromagnetic studies of the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Surveys Geophys. 20 (4), 229–255.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 1995. Experimental constraints on the dynamics of the
partially molten upper mantle, 2, deformation in the dislocation creep regime. J.
Geophys. Res. 100, 15441–15449.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 1996. Water in the oceanic upper mantle: implications for
rheology, melt extraction and the evolution of the lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett. 144, 93–108.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 2003. Rheology of the upper mantle and the mantle
wedge: a view from the experimentalists. In: John Eiler (Ed.), Inside the
Subduction Factory, Geophysical Monograph 138, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 83–105.
Holtzman, B.K., Groebner, N.J., Zimmerman, M.E., Ginsberg, S.B., Kohlstedt, D.L.,
2003. Stress-driven melt segregation in partially molten rocks. Geochem.
Geophys. Geosyst. 4, 8607.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., 1994. Gravitational instability and propagation of tectonic waves
in a two-layer model of the upper mantle. In: Chowdhury, D.K. (Ed.),
Computational Seismology and Geodynamics, vol. 2. American Geophysical
Union, Washington, DC, pp. 76–80.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., Tackley, P., 2010. Computational Methods for Geodynamics.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., Huppert, H.E., Lister, J.R., 2002. Gravitational and buckling
instabilities of a rheologically layered structure: implications for salt diapirism.
Geophys. J. Int. 148, 288–302.
Ismail-Zadeh, A., Aoudia, A., Panza, G., 2010. Three-dimensional numerical
modeling of contemporary mantle flow and tectonic stress beneath the
Central Mediterranean. Tectonophysics 482, 226–236.
Ito, T., Simons, M., 2011. Probing asthenospheric density, temperature, and elastic
moduli below the western United States. Science 332, 947–951.
Jin, Z.-M., Green, H.G., Zhou, Y., 1994. Melt topology in partially molten mantle
peridotite during ductile deformation. Nature 372, 164–167.
Jordan, T.H., 1974. Some comments on tidal drag as a mechanism for driving plate
motions. J. Geophys. Res. 79 (14), 2141–2142.
Kelly, R.K., Kelemen, P.B., Jull, M., 2003. Buoyancy of the continental upper mantle.
Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4(2), 1017, doi:10.1029/2002GC000399.
Knopoff, L., Leeds, A., 1972. Lithospheric Momenta and the deceleration of the Earth.
Nature 237 (12), 93–95.
Kohlstedt, D.L., Holtzman, B.K., 2009. Shearing melt out of the Earth: an
experimentalist’s perspective on the influence of deformation on melt
extraction. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 37, 561–593.
C. Doglioni et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 189 (2011) 1–8 7Kohlstedt, D.L., Zimmerman, M.E., Mackwell, S.J., 2010. Stress-driven melt
segregation in partially molten feldspathic rocks. J. Petrol. 51, 9–19.
Korenaga, J., Karato, S.-I., 2008. A new analysis of experimental data on olivine
rheology. J. Geophys. Res. 113, B02403.
Kreemer, C., 2009. Absolute plate motions constrained by shear wave splitting
orientations with implications for hot spot motions and mantle flow. J.
Geophys. Res. 114, B10405.
Le Pichon, X., 1968. Sea-floor spreading and continental drift. J. Geophys. Res. 73
(12), 3661–3697.
Liebske, C., Schmickler, B., Terasaki, H., Poe, B.T., Suzuki, A., Funakoshi, K., Ando, R.,
Rubie, D.C., 2005. Viscosity of peridotite liquid up to 13 GPa: implications for
magma ocean viscosities. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240, 589–604.
Marone, F., Romanowicz, B., 2007. The depth distribution of azimuthal anisotropy in
the continental upper mantle. Nature 447, 198–202.
Mei, S., Bai, W., Hiraga, T., Kohlstedt, D.L., 2002. Influence of melt on the creep
behavior of olivine-basalt aggregates under hydrous conditions. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 201, 491–507.
Moore, G.W., 1973. Westward tidal lag as the driving force of plate tectonics.
Geology 1, 99–100.
Nelson, T.H., Temple, P.G., 1972. Mainstream mantle convection; a geologic analysis
of plate motion. AAPG Bulletin 56, 226–246.
O’Connell, R., Gable, C.G., Hager, B., 1991. Toroidal-poloidal partitioning of
lithospheric plate motions. In: Sabadini R. et al. (Eds.), Glacial Isostasy, Sea-
Level and Mantle Rheology, vol. 334, Kluwer Academic Publisher, pp. 535–551.
Panza, G., Raykova, R.B., Carminati, E., Doglioni, C., 2007a. Upper mantle flow in the
western Mediterranean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 200–214.
Panza, G.F., Peccerillo, A., Aoudia, A., Farina, B., 2007b. Geophysical and petrological
modeling of the structure and composition of the crust and upper mantle in
complex geodynamic settings: the Tyrrhenian Sea and surroundings. Earth Sci.
Rev. 80, 1–46.
Panza, G., Doglioni, C., Levshin, A., 2010. Asymmetric ocean basins. Geology 38, 59–
62.
Paulson, A., Zhong, S., Wahr, J., 2007. Limitations on the inversion for mantle
viscosity from postglacial rebound. Geophys. J. Int. 168, 1195–1209.
Pollitz, F.F., Burgmann, R., Romanowicz, B., 1998. Viscosity of oceanic asthenosphere
inferred from remote triggering of earthquakes. Science 280, 1245–1249.
Ranalli, G., 2000. Westward drift of the lithosphere: not a result of rotational drag.
Geophys. J. Int. 141, 535–537.
Ricard, Y., Doglioni, C., Sabadini, R., 1991. Differential rotation between lithosphere
and mantle: a consequence of lateral viscosity variations. J. Geophys. Res. 96,
8407–8415.
Riguzzi, F., Panza, G., Varga, P., Doglioni, C., 2010. Can Earth’s rotation and tidal
despinning drive plate tectonics? Tectonophysics 484, 60–73.
Romanowicz, B., 2003. Global mantle tomography: progress status in the last 10
years. Annu. Rev. Geoph. Space Phys., 31(1), 303.
Rychert, C.A., Fischer, C.M., Rondenay, S., 2005. A sharp lithosphere–asthenosphere
boundary imaged beneath eastern North America. Nature 436, 542–545.
Scoppola, B., Boccaletti, D., Bevis, M., Carminati, E., Doglioni, C., 2006. The westward
drift of the lithosphere: a rotational drag? Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 118, 199–209.
Smith, R.B., 1979. The folding of a strongly non-Newtonian layer. Am. J. Sci. 279,
272–287.
Stevenson, D.J., 1994. Weakening under stress. Nature 372, 129–130.
Thybo, H., 2006. The heterogeneous upper mantle low velocity zone.
Tectonophysics 416, 53–79.
Waldhauser, F., Lippitsch, R., Kissling, E., Ansorge, J., 2002. High-resolution
teleseismic tomography of upper-mantle structure using an a priori threedimensional
crustal model. Geophys. J. Int. 150, 403–414.
Zandt, G., Gilbert, H., Owens, T.J., Ducea, M., Saleeby, J., Jones, C.H., 2004. Active
foundering of a continental arc root beneath the southern Sierra Nevada in
California. Nature 431, 41–46.
the upper mantle. Acta Geod. Geoph. Mont. Hung. 24, 395–415.
Anderson, D.L., 2006. Speculations on the nature and cause of mantle heterogeneity.
Tectonophysics 416, 7–22.
Anderson, D.L., 2007. New Theory of the Earth, Cambridge University Press.
Anderson, D.L., 2010. Hawaii, boundary layers and ambient mantle-geophysical
constraints. J. Petrology, doi: 10.1093/petrology/egq068.
Becker, T.W., 2008. Azimuthal seismic anisotropy constrains net rotation of the
lithosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L05303.
Bokelmann, G.H., 2002. Which forces drive North America? Geology 30, 1027–1030.
Boschi, L., Ampueroa, J.-P., Peter, D., Maia, P.M., Soldati, G., Giardini, D., 2007.
Petascale computing and resolution in global seismic tomography. Phys. Earth
Planet. Int. 163, 245–250.
Bostrom, R.C., 1971. Westward displacement of the lithosphere. Nature 234, 356–
538.
Calcagnile, G., Panza, G.F., 1987. Properties of the lithosphere–asthenosphere
system in Europe with a view toward Earth conductivity. Pure Appl. Geophys.
125, 241–254.
Cathles, L.M., 1975. The Viscosity of the Earth’s Mantle. Princeton University Press.
Craig, C.H., McKenzie, D., 1986. The existence of a thin low-viscosity layer beneath
the lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 78 (4), 420–426.
Crespi, M., Cuffaro, M., Doglioni, C., Giannone, F., Riguzzi, F., 2007. Space geodesy
validation of the global lithospheric flow. Geophys. J. Int. 168, 491–506.
Cuffaro, M., Doglioni, C., 2007. Global Kinematics in the deep versus shallow hotspot
reference frames. In: Foulger, G.R., Jurdy, D.M. (Eds.), Plates, Plumes, and
Planetary Processes, Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap., 430, pp. 359–374.
Dingwell, D.B., Courtial, P., Giordano, D., Nichols, A.R.L., 2004. Viscosity of peridotite
liquid. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 226, 127–138.
Doglioni, C., 1993. Geological evidence for a global tectonic polarity. J. Geol. Soc.
150, 991–1002.
Doglioni, C., Green, D., Mongelli, F., 2005. On the shallow origin of hotspots and
the westward drift of the lithosphere. In: Foulger, G.R., Natland, J.H., Presnall, D.C.,
Anderson, D.L. (Eds.), Plates, Plumes and Paradigms, GSA Sp. Paper, 388, pp. 735–
749.
Doglioni, C., Carminati, E., Cuffaro, M., Scrocca, D., 2007. Subduction kinematics and
dynamic constraints. Earth Sci. Rev. 83, 125–175.
Dziewonski, A.M., Anderson, D.L., 1981. Preliminary reference Earth model. Phys.
Earth Planet. Inter. 25, 297–356.
Fletcher, R.C., 1974. Wavelength selection in the folding of a single layer with power
law rheology. Am. J. Sci. 274, 1029–1043.
Green, D.H., Hibberson, W.O., Kovacs, I., Rosenthal, A., 2010. Water and its influence
on the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary. Nature 467, 448–451.
Gripp, A.E., Gordon, R.G., 2002. Young tracks of hotspots and current plate velocities.
Geophys. J. Int. 150, 321–361.
Gung, Y., Panning, M., Romanowicz, B., 2003. Global anisotropy and the thickness of
continents. Nature 422, 707–710.
Harris, J.W., Stocker, H., 1998. Handbook of Mathematics and Computational
Science. Springer, New York.
Heinson, G., 1999. Electromagnetic studies of the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Surveys Geophys. 20 (4), 229–255.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 1995. Experimental constraints on the dynamics of the
partially molten upper mantle, 2, deformation in the dislocation creep regime. J.
Geophys. Res. 100, 15441–15449.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 1996. Water in the oceanic upper mantle: implications for
rheology, melt extraction and the evolution of the lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett. 144, 93–108.
Hirth, G., Kohlstedt, D.L., 2003. Rheology of the upper mantle and the mantle
wedge: a view from the experimentalists. In: John Eiler (Ed.), Inside the
Subduction Factory, Geophysical Monograph 138, American Geophysical Union,
Washington, DC, pp. 83–105.
Holtzman, B.K., Groebner, N.J., Zimmerman, M.E., Ginsberg, S.B., Kohlstedt, D.L.,
2003. Stress-driven melt segregation in partially molten rocks. Geochem.
Geophys. Geosyst. 4, 8607.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., 1994. Gravitational instability and propagation of tectonic waves
in a two-layer model of the upper mantle. In: Chowdhury, D.K. (Ed.),
Computational Seismology and Geodynamics, vol. 2. American Geophysical
Union, Washington, DC, pp. 76–80.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., Tackley, P., 2010. Computational Methods for Geodynamics.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ismail-Zadeh, A.T., Huppert, H.E., Lister, J.R., 2002. Gravitational and buckling
instabilities of a rheologically layered structure: implications for salt diapirism.
Geophys. J. Int. 148, 288–302.
Ismail-Zadeh, A., Aoudia, A., Panza, G., 2010. Three-dimensional numerical
modeling of contemporary mantle flow and tectonic stress beneath the
Central Mediterranean. Tectonophysics 482, 226–236.
Ito, T., Simons, M., 2011. Probing asthenospheric density, temperature, and elastic
moduli below the western United States. Science 332, 947–951.
Jin, Z.-M., Green, H.G., Zhou, Y., 1994. Melt topology in partially molten mantle
peridotite during ductile deformation. Nature 372, 164–167.
Jordan, T.H., 1974. Some comments on tidal drag as a mechanism for driving plate
motions. J. Geophys. Res. 79 (14), 2141–2142.
Kelly, R.K., Kelemen, P.B., Jull, M., 2003. Buoyancy of the continental upper mantle.
Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4(2), 1017, doi:10.1029/2002GC000399.
Knopoff, L., Leeds, A., 1972. Lithospheric Momenta and the deceleration of the Earth.
Nature 237 (12), 93–95.
Kohlstedt, D.L., Holtzman, B.K., 2009. Shearing melt out of the Earth: an
experimentalist’s perspective on the influence of deformation on melt
extraction. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 37, 561–593.
C. Doglioni et al. / Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 189 (2011) 1–8 7Kohlstedt, D.L., Zimmerman, M.E., Mackwell, S.J., 2010. Stress-driven melt
segregation in partially molten feldspathic rocks. J. Petrol. 51, 9–19.
Korenaga, J., Karato, S.-I., 2008. A new analysis of experimental data on olivine
rheology. J. Geophys. Res. 113, B02403.
Kreemer, C., 2009. Absolute plate motions constrained by shear wave splitting
orientations with implications for hot spot motions and mantle flow. J.
Geophys. Res. 114, B10405.
Le Pichon, X., 1968. Sea-floor spreading and continental drift. J. Geophys. Res. 73
(12), 3661–3697.
Liebske, C., Schmickler, B., Terasaki, H., Poe, B.T., Suzuki, A., Funakoshi, K., Ando, R.,
Rubie, D.C., 2005. Viscosity of peridotite liquid up to 13 GPa: implications for
magma ocean viscosities. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 240, 589–604.
Marone, F., Romanowicz, B., 2007. The depth distribution of azimuthal anisotropy in
the continental upper mantle. Nature 447, 198–202.
Mei, S., Bai, W., Hiraga, T., Kohlstedt, D.L., 2002. Influence of melt on the creep
behavior of olivine-basalt aggregates under hydrous conditions. Earth Planet.
Sci. Lett. 201, 491–507.
Moore, G.W., 1973. Westward tidal lag as the driving force of plate tectonics.
Geology 1, 99–100.
Nelson, T.H., Temple, P.G., 1972. Mainstream mantle convection; a geologic analysis
of plate motion. AAPG Bulletin 56, 226–246.
O’Connell, R., Gable, C.G., Hager, B., 1991. Toroidal-poloidal partitioning of
lithospheric plate motions. In: Sabadini R. et al. (Eds.), Glacial Isostasy, Sea-
Level and Mantle Rheology, vol. 334, Kluwer Academic Publisher, pp. 535–551.
Panza, G., Raykova, R.B., Carminati, E., Doglioni, C., 2007a. Upper mantle flow in the
western Mediterranean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 257, 200–214.
Panza, G.F., Peccerillo, A., Aoudia, A., Farina, B., 2007b. Geophysical and petrological
modeling of the structure and composition of the crust and upper mantle in
complex geodynamic settings: the Tyrrhenian Sea and surroundings. Earth Sci.
Rev. 80, 1–46.
Panza, G., Doglioni, C., Levshin, A., 2010. Asymmetric ocean basins. Geology 38, 59–
62.
Paulson, A., Zhong, S., Wahr, J., 2007. Limitations on the inversion for mantle
viscosity from postglacial rebound. Geophys. J. Int. 168, 1195–1209.
Pollitz, F.F., Burgmann, R., Romanowicz, B., 1998. Viscosity of oceanic asthenosphere
inferred from remote triggering of earthquakes. Science 280, 1245–1249.
Ranalli, G., 2000. Westward drift of the lithosphere: not a result of rotational drag.
Geophys. J. Int. 141, 535–537.
Ricard, Y., Doglioni, C., Sabadini, R., 1991. Differential rotation between lithosphere
and mantle: a consequence of lateral viscosity variations. J. Geophys. Res. 96,
8407–8415.
Riguzzi, F., Panza, G., Varga, P., Doglioni, C., 2010. Can Earth’s rotation and tidal
despinning drive plate tectonics? Tectonophysics 484, 60–73.
Romanowicz, B., 2003. Global mantle tomography: progress status in the last 10
years. Annu. Rev. Geoph. Space Phys., 31(1), 303.
Rychert, C.A., Fischer, C.M., Rondenay, S., 2005. A sharp lithosphere–asthenosphere
boundary imaged beneath eastern North America. Nature 436, 542–545.
Scoppola, B., Boccaletti, D., Bevis, M., Carminati, E., Doglioni, C., 2006. The westward
drift of the lithosphere: a rotational drag? Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 118, 199–209.
Smith, R.B., 1979. The folding of a strongly non-Newtonian layer. Am. J. Sci. 279,
272–287.
Stevenson, D.J., 1994. Weakening under stress. Nature 372, 129–130.
Thybo, H., 2006. The heterogeneous upper mantle low velocity zone.
Tectonophysics 416, 53–79.
Waldhauser, F., Lippitsch, R., Kissling, E., Ansorge, J., 2002. High-resolution
teleseismic tomography of upper-mantle structure using an a priori threedimensional
crustal model. Geophys. J. Int. 150, 403–414.
Zandt, G., Gilbert, H., Owens, T.J., Ducea, M., Saleeby, J., Jones, C.H., 2004. Active
foundering of a continental arc root beneath the southern Sierra Nevada in
California. Nature 431, 41–46.
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