Monitoring, tracking and forecasting ionospheric perturbations using GNSS techniques

The paper reviews the current state of GNSS-based detection, monitoring and forecasting of ionospheric perturbations in Europe in relation to the COST action ES0803 ‘‘Developing Space Weather Products and Services in Europe’’. Space weather research and related ionospheric studies require broad international collaboration in sharing databases, developing analysis software and models and providing services. Reviewed is the European GNSS data basis including ionospheric services providing derived data products such as the Total Electron Content (TEC) and radio scintillation indices. Fundamental ionospheric perturbation phenomena covering quite different scales in time and space are discussed in the light of recent achievements in GNSS-based ionospheric monitoring.
Thus, large-scale perturbation processes characterized by moving ionization fronts, wave-like travelling ionospheric
disturbances and finally small-scale irregularities causing radio scintillations are considered. Whereas ground and space-based GNSS monitoring techniques are well developed, forecasting of ionospheric perturbations needs much more work to become
attractive for users who might be interested in condensed information on the perturbation degree of the ionosphere by robust indices.
Finally, we have briefly presented a few samples illustrating the space weather impact on GNSS applications thus encouraging
the scientific community to enhance space weather research in upcoming years.

Afraimovich, E.L., I.K. Edemskiy, A.S. Leonovich, L.A. Leonovich,
L.A. Leonovich, S.V. Voeykov, and Y.V. Yasyukevich, MHD
nature of night-time MSTIDs excited by solar terminator,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L15106, 1–5,
DOI: 10.1029/2009GL039803, 2009.
Alfonsi, Lu., G. De Franceschi, V. Romano, A. Bourdillon, and M.
Le Huy, GPS scintillations and TEC gradients at equatorial
latitudes on April 2006, Adv. Space Res., 47, 1750–1757,
2011.
Alves da Silva, H., P. Camargo, J.F. Galera Monico, M. Aquino,
H.A. Marques, G.G. De Franceschi, and A. Dodson, Stochastic
modelling considering ionospheric scintillation effects on GNSS
relative and point positioning, Adv. Space Res., 45, 1113–1121,
2010.
Aquino, M., J.F.G. Monico, A.H. Dodson, H.A. Marques, G. De
Franceschi, L. Alfonsi, V. Romano, and M. Andreotti, Improving
the GNSS positioning stochastic model in the presence of
ionospheric scintillation, J. Geod.,
DOI: 10.1007/s00190-009-0313-6, 2009.
Arbesser-Rastburg, B., and N. Jakowski, Effects on Satellite
Navigation in Space weather, physics and effects, Eds. V.,
Bothmer, and J. Daglis. Springer, Heidelberg, 383–402, 2007.
Beach, T.L., M.C. Kelley, P.M. Kintner, and C.A. Miller, Total
electron content variations due to nonclassical traveling ionospheric
disturbances: Theory and Global Positioning System
observations, J. Geophys. Res., 102 (A4), 7279–7292,
DOI: 10.1029/96JA02542, 1997.
Be´niguel, Y., J-P Adam, N. Jakowski, T. Noack, V. Wilken, J.-J.
Valette, M. Cueto, A. Bourdillon, P. Lassudrie-Duchesne, and B.
Arbesser-Rastburg, Analysis of scintillation recorded during the
PRIS measurement campaign, Radio Sci., 44,
DOI: 10.1029/2008RS004090, 2009.
Be´niguel, Y., and P. Hamel, A global ionosphere scintillation
propagation model for equatorial regions, J. Space Weather Space
Clim., 1 (2011), DOI: 10.1051/swsc/2011004, 2011.
Bertin, F., J. Testud, L. Kersley, and P.R. Rees, The meteorological
jet stream as a source of medium scale gravity waves in the
thermosphere – an experimental study, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 40,
1161–1183, 1978. Borries, C., N. Jakowski, and V. Wilken, Storm induced large
scale TIDs observed in GPS derived TEC, Ann. Geophys., 27 (4),
1605–1612, Copernicus Publications, ISSN 0992-7689,
2009.
Conker, R.S., M.B. El-Arini, C.J. Hegarty, and T. Hsiao, Modeling
the effects of ionospheric scintillation on GPS/satellite-based
augmentation system availability, Radio Sci., 38 (1),
DOI: 10.1029/2000RS002604, 2003.
Davies, K., Recent progress in satellite radio beacon studies with
particular emphasis on the ATS-6 radio beacon experiment, Space
Sci. Rev., 25, 357–430, 1980
De Franceschi, G., L. Alfonsi, and V. Romano, ISACCO: an Italian
project to monitor the high latitudes ionosphere by means of GPS
receivers, GPS Solutions, 18, 263–267,
DOI: 10.1007/s10291-006-0036-6, 2006.
De Franceschi, G., L. Alfonsi, V. Romano, M. Aquino, A. Dodson,
C.N. Mitchell, and A.W. Wernik, Dynamics of high latitude
patches and associated small scale irregularities, J. Atmos. Sol.
Terr. Phys., 70 (6), 879–888, DOI: 10.1016/j.jastp.2007.05.018,
2008.
Foerster, M., and N. Jakowski, Geomagnetic storm effects on the
topside ionosphere and plasmasphere: a compact tutorial and new
results, Surv. Geophys, 21 (1), 47–87, 2000.
Garcia-Rigo, A., M. Hernandez-Pajares, J.M. Juan, and J. Sanz,
Solar flare detection system based on global positioning system
data: First results, Adv. Space Res., 39, 2007.
Haggerty, D.K., and E.C. Roelof, Impulsive near-relativistic solar
electron events: delayed injection with respect to solar electromagnetic
emission, Astrophys. J., 579, 841–853, 2002.
Hajj, G.A., and L.J. Romans, Ionospheric electron density profiles
obtained with the Global Positioning System: results from the
GPS/MET experiment, Radio Sci., 33 (1), 175–190, 1998.
Heise, S., N. Jakowski, A. Wehrenpfennig, Ch. Reigber, and H.
Lu¨hr, Sounding of the topside ionosphere/plasmasphere based on
GPS measurements from CHAMP: initial results, Geophys.
Res. Lett., 29 (14), 44-1–44-4, DOI: 10.1029/2002GL014738,
2002.
Hernandez-Pajares, M., J.M. Juan, and J. Sanz, Medium-scale
traveling ionospheric disturbances affecting GPS measurements:
Spatial and temporal analysis, J. Geophys. Res., 111, A07S11,
DOI: 10.1029/2005JA011474, 2006.
Hernandez-Pajares, M., J.M. Juan, J. Sanz, and A. Aragon-Angel,
Propagation of medium scale travelling ionospheric disturbances at
different latitudes and solar cycle conditions, Radio Sci., 47,
RS0K05, DOI: 10.1029/2011RS004951, 2012.
Jakowski, N., S. Schlueter, and E. Sardon, Total Electron Content of
the Ionosphere During the Geomagnetic Storm on January 10,
1997, J. Atmos. Solar-Terr. Phys., 61, 299–307, 1999.
Jakowski, N., Ionospheric GPS Radio Occultation measurements on
board CHAMP, GPS Solutions, 9, 88–95,
DOI: 10.1007/s10291-005-0137-7, 2005.
Jakowski, N., V. Wilken, and C. Mayer, Space weather monitoring
by GPS measurements on board CHAMP, Space Weather, 5,
S08006, DOI: 10.1029/2006SW000271, 2007.
Jakowski, N., J. Mielich, C. Borries, L. Cander, A. Krankowski, B.
Nava, and S.M. Stankov, Large scale ionospheric gradients over
Europe observed in October 2003, J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys.,
DOI: 10.1016/j.jastp.2008.03.020, 2008.
Jakowski, N., C. Mayer, C. Borries, and V. Wilken, Space weather
monitoring by ground and space based GNSS measurements,
Proc. ION – International Technical Meeting, January 26–28,
Anaheim, CA, 2009.
Jakowski, N., C. Mayer, M.M. Hoque, and V. Wilken, TEC models
and their use in ionosphere monitoring, Radio Sci., 46, RS0D18,
DOI: 10.1029/2010RS004620, 2011.
Jakowski, N., C. Borries, and V. Wilken, Introducing a Disturbance
Ionosphere Index (DIX), Radio Sci.,
DOI: 10.1029/2011RS004939, 2012.
Kelley., M.C., On the origin of mesoscale TIDs at midlatitudes, Ann.
Geophys., 29, 361–366, 2011. Lejeune, S., G. Wautelet, and R. Warnant, Ionospheric effects on
relative positioning within a dense GPS network, GPS Solutions,
16 (1), 105–116, 2012.
Mayer, C., B. Belabbas, N. Jakowski, M. Meurer, and W. Dunkel,
Ionosphere Threat Space Model Assessment for GBAS,
ION GNSS 2009, 22–25 September, Savannah, GA, USA, 2009.
Mendillo, M., J.A. Klobuchar, R.B. Fritz, A.V. Da Rosa, L. Kersley,
et al., Behavior of the ionospheric F region during the great solar
flare of August 7, 1972, J. Geophys. Res., 79, 665–672, 1974.
Prieto Cerdeira, R., and Y. Beniguel, The MONITOR project:
architecture, data and products, Ionospheric Effects Symposium,
Alexandria VA, 2011.
Pro¨ lss, G.W., Ionospheric F-region storms, in Handbook of Atmospheric
Electrodynamics, Ed. H. Volland, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, 2, 195–248, 1995.
Reigber Ch., H. Lu¨hr, and P. Schwintzer, CHAMP mission status
and perspectives, Suppl. to EOS, Transactions, AGU, 81, 48,
F307, 2000.
Romano, V., S. Pau, M. Pezzopane, E. Zuccheretti, B. Zolesi,
G. De Franceschi, and S. Locatelli, The electronic Space Weather
upper atmosphere (eSWua) project at INGV: advancements and
state of the art, Ann. Geophys., 26 (2), 345–351, 2008.
Scotto, C., Sporadic-E layer and meteorological activity, Ann.
Geofis., XXXVIII (1), 1995.
Spencer, P.S.J., and C.N. Mitchell, Imaging of fast-moving electron
density structures in the polar cap, Ann. Geophys., 50 (3), 427–434,
2007.
Spogli, L., L. Alfonsi, G. De Franceschi, V. Romano, M.H.O.
Aquino, and A. Dodson, Climatology of GPS ionospheric scintillations over high and mid-latitude European regions, Ann.
Geophys., 27, 3429–3437, 2009.
Spogli, L., L. Alfonsi, G. De Franceschi, V. Romano, M. Aquino,
and A. Dodson, Climatology of GNSS ionospheric scintillation at
high and mid latitudes under different solar activity conditions,
Il Nuovo Cimento, 125 B, 623–632,
DOI: 10.1393/ncb/i2010-10857-7, 2010.
Sreeja, V.V., M. Aquino, B. Forte, Z. Elmas, C. Hancock, et al.,
Tackling ionospheric scintillation threat to GNSS in Latin
America, J. Space Weather Space Clim., 1, A05,
DOI: 10.1051/swsc/2011005, 2011.
Tsurutani, B.T., O.P. Verkhoglyadova, A.J. Mannucci, G.S. Lakhina,
G. Li, and G.P. Zank, A brief review of solar flare effects on the
ionosphere, Radio Sci., 44, RS0A17,
DOI: 10.1029/2008RS004029, 2009.
Van Velthoven, P.J., Medium-scale irregularities in the ionospheric
electron content, Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven,1990.
Wernik, A.W., L. Alfonsi, and M. Materassi, Scintillation modeling
using in situ data, Radio Sci., 42, RS1002,
DOI: 10.1029/2006RS003512, 2007.
Wickert, J., G. Michalak, T. Schmidt, G. Beyerle, C.Z. Cheng, et al.,
GPS radio occultation: Results from CHAMP, GRACE and
FORMOSAT-3/COSMIC, Terr. Atmos. Oceanic Sci., 20, 45–50,
DOI: 10.3319/TAO.2007.12.26.01 (F3C), 2009.
Woods, T.N., R. Hock, F. Eparvier, A.R. Jones, P.C. Chamberlin,
et al., New solar extreme-ultraviolet irradiance observations
during flares, Astrophys. J., 739, 59,
DOI: 10.1088/0004-637X/739/2/59, 2011.