Options
Discriminating among distinct source models of the 1908 Messina Straits earthquake by modelling intensity data through full wavefield seismograms
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
4T. Fisica dei terremoti e scenari cosismici
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/198 (2014)
ISSN
0956-540X
Electronic ISSN
1365-246X
Publisher
Wiley-Blackwell
Pages (printed)
164-173
Issued date
April 2014
Keywords
Abstract
Macroseismic intensities are the only available data for most historical earthquakes and often
represent the unique source of information for crucial events in the definition of seismic
hazard. In this paper, we attempt at getting insight into source characteristics by reproducing
the observed intensity field. As a test case, we study the source of 1908 Messina Straits
earthquake (
M
W
=
7.1), by testing three distinct fault models deduced from the analysis of
geodeticdata.Startingfromthestaticslipdistribution,wedevelop kinematicsourcemodelsfor
the investigated fault and compute full waveform synthetic seismograms in a 1-D structural
model, also accounting for anelastic attenuation. Then, we convert both computed peak-
ground acceleration (PGA) and peak-ground velocity (PGV) to macroseismic intensity at 100
selected sites, by means of specific empirical relations for the Italian region. By comparing
the original data separately with PGA- and PGV-based intensity fields, we discriminate among
the tested faults and determine the best values for the investigated kinematic parameters of the
source. We also perform a misfit analysis for the best source model, in order to investigate the
dependence of the results on the selected parametrization. The results of the analysis indicate
that among the tested models, the one characterized by an east-dipping fault, with strike-
oriented NS slightly rotated clockwise, better explains the observed macroseismic field of the
1908 Messina Straits earthquake. Besides, the fracture nucleated at the southern end of the
fault and ruptured northward, producing considerable directivity effects. This is in agreement
with the published results obtained from the investigation of the historical seismograms. We
alsodeterminerealisticvalues fortherupturevelocityand therise-time.Ourstudyconfirms the
greatpotentialofthemacroseismicdata,demonstratingthattheycontainenoughinformationto
constrain important characteristics of the fault, which can be retrieved by using complex source
models and computing complete wavefield. Moreover, we also show that the simultaneous
comparison of both PGA- and PGV-based synthetic macroseismic fields with the original
intensities provides tighter constraints for discriminating among different source models, with
respect to what attainable from each of them
represent the unique source of information for crucial events in the definition of seismic
hazard. In this paper, we attempt at getting insight into source characteristics by reproducing
the observed intensity field. As a test case, we study the source of 1908 Messina Straits
earthquake (
M
W
=
7.1), by testing three distinct fault models deduced from the analysis of
geodeticdata.Startingfromthestaticslipdistribution,wedevelop kinematicsourcemodelsfor
the investigated fault and compute full waveform synthetic seismograms in a 1-D structural
model, also accounting for anelastic attenuation. Then, we convert both computed peak-
ground acceleration (PGA) and peak-ground velocity (PGV) to macroseismic intensity at 100
selected sites, by means of specific empirical relations for the Italian region. By comparing
the original data separately with PGA- and PGV-based intensity fields, we discriminate among
the tested faults and determine the best values for the investigated kinematic parameters of the
source. We also perform a misfit analysis for the best source model, in order to investigate the
dependence of the results on the selected parametrization. The results of the analysis indicate
that among the tested models, the one characterized by an east-dipping fault, with strike-
oriented NS slightly rotated clockwise, better explains the observed macroseismic field of the
1908 Messina Straits earthquake. Besides, the fracture nucleated at the southern end of the
fault and ruptured northward, producing considerable directivity effects. This is in agreement
with the published results obtained from the investigation of the historical seismograms. We
alsodeterminerealisticvalues fortherupturevelocityand therise-time.Ourstudyconfirms the
greatpotentialofthemacroseismicdata,demonstratingthattheycontainenoughinformationto
constrain important characteristics of the fault, which can be retrieved by using complex source
models and computing complete wavefield. Moreover, we also show that the simultaneous
comparison of both PGA- and PGV-based synthetic macroseismic fields with the original
intensities provides tighter constraints for discriminating among different source models, with
respect to what attainable from each of them
References
Abrahamson, N.A. & Somerville, P.G., 1996. Effects of the hanging wall and
footwall on ground motions recorded during the Northridge earthquake,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
86
(1B), S93–S99.
Aloisi, M., Bruno, V., Cannav
`
o, F., Ferranti, L., Mattia, M., Monaco, C. &
Palano,M.,2013.Arethesourcemodelsofthe
M
7.11908MessinaStraits
earthquake reliable? Insights from a novel inversion and a sensitivity
analysis of levelling data,
Geophys. J. Int.,
192,
1025–1041.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L. & Scarpa, R., 2002. Source parameters of the
1908 Messina Straits, Italy, earthquake from geodetic and seismic data,
J. geophys. Res.,
107,
ESE 4-1–ESE 4-11.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L., Neri, G., Orecchio, B. & Scarpa, R., 2006.
Spatial relation between the 1908 Messina Straits earthquake slip and
recent earthquake distribution,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33
(17), L17309,
doi:10.1029/2006GL027227.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L. & Scarpa, R.R., 2010. Comment on “The 28
December 1908 Messina Straits Earthquake (Mw 7.1): a great earthquake
throughout a Century of Seismology” by N.A. Pino, A. Piatanesi, G.
Valensise, and E. Boschi,
Seismol. Res. Lett.,
82,
225–228.
Baratta, M., 1910. La catastrofe sismica calabro-messinese (28 dicembre
1908), in
Relazione alla Societ
`
a Geografica Italiana
, Societ
`
a Geografica
Italiana.
Barberi, G., Cosentino, M., Gervasi, A., Guerra, I., Neri, G. & Orecchio,
B., 2004. Crustal seismic tomography in the Calabrian Arc region, south
Italy,
Phys. Earth planet. Inter.,
147
(4), 297–314.
Bazzurro, P. & Cornell, C.A., 1999. Disaggregation of seismic hazard,
Bull.
seism. Soc. Am.,
89
(2), 501–520.
Boore, D.M., 2003. Simulation of ground motion using the Stochastic
method,
Pure appl. Geophys.,
160
(3–4), 635–676.
Boschi, E., Pantosti, D. & Valensise, G., 1989.
Modello di Sorgente Per Il
Terremoto di Messina Del 1908 Ed Evoluzione Recente Dell’area Dello
Stretto, Atti VIII Convegno, G.N.G.T.S., pp. 245–258.Boore, D.M. & Atkinson, G.M., 2008. Ground-motion prediction equations
for the average horizontal component of PGA, PGV, and 5%-damped
PSA at spectral periods between 0.01 s and 10.0 s,
Earthq. Spectra,
24
(1),
99–138.
Borcherdt, R., 1994. Estimates of site-dependent response spectra for design
(methodology and justification),
Earthq. Spectra,
10,
617–653.
Bouchon, M., 1997. The state of stress on some faults of the San Andreas
system as inferred from near-field strong motion data,
J. geophys. Res.,
102
(B6), 11731–11744.
Brocher, T., 2005. Empirical relations between elastic wavespeeds and den-
sity in the Earth’s crust,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
95
(6), 2081–2092.
Cannelli, V., Melini, D. & Piersanti, A., 2013. New insights on the Messina
1908 seismic source from post-seismic sea level change,
Geophys. J. Int.,
194,
611–622.
Capuano, P., De Natale, G., Gasparini, P., Pingue, F. & Scarpa, R., 1988.
A model for the 1908 Messina Straits (Italy) earthquake by inversion of
leveling data,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
78,
1930–1947.
Convertito, V., De Matteis, R., Cantore, L., Zollo, A., Iannaccone, G. &
Caccavale, M., 2010. Rapid estimation of ground-shaking maps for seis-
mic emergency management in the Campania Region of southern Italy,
Nat. Hazards,
52
(1), 97–115.
Convertito, V., Iervolino, I. & Herrero, A., 2009. Importance of mapping de-
sign earthquakes: insights for the Southern Apennines, Italy.
Bull. seism.
Soc. Am.,
99
(5), 2979–2991.
Cultrera, G., Cirella, A., Spagnuolo, E., Herrero, A., Tinti, E. & Pacor, F.,
2010. Variability of kinematic source parameters and its implication on
the choice of the design scenario,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
100
(3), 941–953.
De Natale, G. & Pingue, F., 1991. A variable slip fault model for the 1908
Messina Straits (Italy) earthquake, by inversion of leveling data,
Geophys.
J. Int.,
104
(1), 73–84.
De Natale, G. & Pino, N.A., 2014. Comment on ‘Are the source models
of the M 7.1 1908 Messina Straits earthquake reliable? Insights from a
novel inversion and sensitivity analysis of levelling data’ by M. Aloisi,
V. Bruno, F. Cannav
`
o, L. Ferranti, M. Mattia, C. Monaco and M. Palano,
Geophys. J. Int
, doi:10.1093/gji/ggu063.
Emolo, A., Cultrera, G., Franceschina, G., Pacor, F., Convertito, V., Cocco,
M. & Zollo, A., 2008. Ground motion scenarios for the 1997 Colfiorito,
central Italy, earthquake,
Ann. Geophys.,
51,
509–525.
Emolo, A., Iannaccone, G., Zollo, A. & Gorini, A., 2004. Inferences on
the source mechanisms of the 1930 Irpinia (Southern Italy) earthquake
from simulations of the kinematic rupture process,
Ann. Geophys.,
47
(6),
1743–1754.
Faccioli, E. & Cauzzi, C., 2006. Macroseismic intensities for seismic sce-
narios, estimated from instrumentally based correlations, in
Proceedings
of the First European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seis-
mology,
paper no. 569, Geneva, Switzerland.
Faenza, L. & Michelini, A., 2010. Regression analysis of MCS intensity
and ground motion parameters in Italy and its application in ShakeMap,
Geophys. J. Int.,
180,
1138–1152.
Gasperini, P., Bernardini, F., Valensise, G. & Boschi, E., 1999. Defining
seismogenic sources from historical earthquake felt reports,
Bull. seism.
Soc. Am.,
89,
94–110.
Imperatori, W. & Mai, M., 2012. Sensitivity of broad-band ground-motion
simulations to earthquake source and Earth structure variations: an appli-
cation to the Messina Straits (Italy),
Geophys. J. Int.,
188,
1103–1116 Joyner, W.B. & Boore, D.M., 1981. Peak horizontal acceleration and ve-
locity from strong-motion records including records from the 1979 Im-
perial Valley, California, earthquake,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
71,
2011–
2038.
Lay, T. & Wallace, T.C., 1995.
Modern Global Seismology,
Academic Press.
Locati, M., Camassi, R. & Stucchi, M. (eds), 2011. DBMI11,
the 2011 version of the Italian macroseismic database, Milano,
Bologna,
http://emidius.mi.ingv.it/DBMI11
(lastaccessed1August2013)
doi:10.6092/INGV.IT-DBMI11.
Mallet, R., 1862.
The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857. The First
Principles of Observational Seismology,
Chapman & Hill.
Michelini, A., Lomax, A., Nardi, A., Rossi, A., Palombo, B. & Bono, A.,
2005. A modern re-examination of the locations of the 1905 Calabria and
the 1908 Messina Straits earthquakes,
Geophys. Res. Abstr.,
7,
EGU05-
A-07909.
Michelini, A., Faenza, L., Lauciani, V. & Malagnini, L., 2008. ShakeMap
implementation in Italy,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
79
(5), 688–697.
Mulargia, F. & Boschi, E., 1983. The 1908 Messina earthquake and re-
lated seismicity, in
Earthquakes: Observation, Theory and Interpretation
,
pp. 493–518, eds Kanamori, H. & Boschi, E.,
Proceedings of the Inter-
national School of Physics Enrico Fermi,
course 85, Elsevier.
Oglesby, D.D., Archuleta, R.J. & Nielsen, S.B., 1998. Earthquakes on dip-
ping faults: the effects of broken symmetry,
Science,
280
(5366), 1055–
1059.
Pettenati, F. & Sirovich, L., 2007. Validation of intensity-based source in-
version of three destructive California earthquakes,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
97
(5), 1587–1606.
Pino, N. A., Giardini, D. & Boschi, E., 2000. The December 28, 1908,
Messina Straits, southern Italy, earthquake: waveform modeling of re-
gional seismograms,
J. geophys. Res.,
105
(B11), 25473–25492.
Pino,N.A.,Piatanesi,A.,Valensise,G.&Boschi,E.,2009.The28December
1908 Messina Straits earthquake (Mw 7.1): a great earthquake throughout
a century of seismology,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
80,
243–259.
Pino, N.A., Piatanesi, A., Valensise, G. & Boschi, E., 2010. Reply to “Com-
ment on ‘The 28 December 1908 Messina Straits Earthquake (Mw 7.1):
a great earthquake throughout a Century of Seismology,’ by N.A. Pino,
A. Piatanesi, G. Valensise, & E. Boschi” by A. Amoruso, Crescentini, L.
& Scarpa, R.,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
81,
229–231.
Sato, R., Abe, K., Okada, Y., Shimazaki, K. & Suzuki, Y., 1989.
The Hand-
book of Seismic Fault Parameters in Japan,
Kajima Institute Publishing
Co.
Schick, R., 1977. Eine seismotektonische Bearbeitung des Erdbebens von
Messina im Jahre 1908,
Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe E,
11,
ISBN:978–
3–510–96074–3.
Shebalin, N.V., 1973. Macroseismic data as information on source parame-
ters of large earthquakes,
Phys. Earth planet. Inter.,
6,
316–323.
Tuv
`
e, T., Bianco, F., Ib
́
a
̃
nez, J.M., Patan
́
e, D., Del Pezzo, E. & Bottari, A.,
2006. Attenuation study in the Straits of Messina area (Southern Italy),
Tectonophysics,
421,
173–185.
Wald, D.J., Quitoriano, V., Heaton, T.H., Kanamori, H., Scrivner, C.W.
& Worden, B.C., 1999. TriNet “ShakeMaps”: rapid generation of peak
ground-motion and intensity maps for earthquakes in southern California,
Earthq. Spectra,
15
(3), 537–556.
Wessel, P. & Smith, W.H.F., 1991. Free software helps map and display data,
EOS, Trans. Am. geophys. Un.,
72
(41), 441–446
footwall on ground motions recorded during the Northridge earthquake,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
86
(1B), S93–S99.
Aloisi, M., Bruno, V., Cannav
`
o, F., Ferranti, L., Mattia, M., Monaco, C. &
Palano,M.,2013.Arethesourcemodelsofthe
M
7.11908MessinaStraits
earthquake reliable? Insights from a novel inversion and a sensitivity
analysis of levelling data,
Geophys. J. Int.,
192,
1025–1041.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L. & Scarpa, R., 2002. Source parameters of the
1908 Messina Straits, Italy, earthquake from geodetic and seismic data,
J. geophys. Res.,
107,
ESE 4-1–ESE 4-11.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L., Neri, G., Orecchio, B. & Scarpa, R., 2006.
Spatial relation between the 1908 Messina Straits earthquake slip and
recent earthquake distribution,
Geophys. Res. Lett.,
33
(17), L17309,
doi:10.1029/2006GL027227.
Amoruso, A., Crescentini, L. & Scarpa, R.R., 2010. Comment on “The 28
December 1908 Messina Straits Earthquake (Mw 7.1): a great earthquake
throughout a Century of Seismology” by N.A. Pino, A. Piatanesi, G.
Valensise, and E. Boschi,
Seismol. Res. Lett.,
82,
225–228.
Baratta, M., 1910. La catastrofe sismica calabro-messinese (28 dicembre
1908), in
Relazione alla Societ
`
a Geografica Italiana
, Societ
`
a Geografica
Italiana.
Barberi, G., Cosentino, M., Gervasi, A., Guerra, I., Neri, G. & Orecchio,
B., 2004. Crustal seismic tomography in the Calabrian Arc region, south
Italy,
Phys. Earth planet. Inter.,
147
(4), 297–314.
Bazzurro, P. & Cornell, C.A., 1999. Disaggregation of seismic hazard,
Bull.
seism. Soc. Am.,
89
(2), 501–520.
Boore, D.M., 2003. Simulation of ground motion using the Stochastic
method,
Pure appl. Geophys.,
160
(3–4), 635–676.
Boschi, E., Pantosti, D. & Valensise, G., 1989.
Modello di Sorgente Per Il
Terremoto di Messina Del 1908 Ed Evoluzione Recente Dell’area Dello
Stretto, Atti VIII Convegno, G.N.G.T.S., pp. 245–258.Boore, D.M. & Atkinson, G.M., 2008. Ground-motion prediction equations
for the average horizontal component of PGA, PGV, and 5%-damped
PSA at spectral periods between 0.01 s and 10.0 s,
Earthq. Spectra,
24
(1),
99–138.
Borcherdt, R., 1994. Estimates of site-dependent response spectra for design
(methodology and justification),
Earthq. Spectra,
10,
617–653.
Bouchon, M., 1997. The state of stress on some faults of the San Andreas
system as inferred from near-field strong motion data,
J. geophys. Res.,
102
(B6), 11731–11744.
Brocher, T., 2005. Empirical relations between elastic wavespeeds and den-
sity in the Earth’s crust,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
95
(6), 2081–2092.
Cannelli, V., Melini, D. & Piersanti, A., 2013. New insights on the Messina
1908 seismic source from post-seismic sea level change,
Geophys. J. Int.,
194,
611–622.
Capuano, P., De Natale, G., Gasparini, P., Pingue, F. & Scarpa, R., 1988.
A model for the 1908 Messina Straits (Italy) earthquake by inversion of
leveling data,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
78,
1930–1947.
Convertito, V., De Matteis, R., Cantore, L., Zollo, A., Iannaccone, G. &
Caccavale, M., 2010. Rapid estimation of ground-shaking maps for seis-
mic emergency management in the Campania Region of southern Italy,
Nat. Hazards,
52
(1), 97–115.
Convertito, V., Iervolino, I. & Herrero, A., 2009. Importance of mapping de-
sign earthquakes: insights for the Southern Apennines, Italy.
Bull. seism.
Soc. Am.,
99
(5), 2979–2991.
Cultrera, G., Cirella, A., Spagnuolo, E., Herrero, A., Tinti, E. & Pacor, F.,
2010. Variability of kinematic source parameters and its implication on
the choice of the design scenario,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
100
(3), 941–953.
De Natale, G. & Pingue, F., 1991. A variable slip fault model for the 1908
Messina Straits (Italy) earthquake, by inversion of leveling data,
Geophys.
J. Int.,
104
(1), 73–84.
De Natale, G. & Pino, N.A., 2014. Comment on ‘Are the source models
of the M 7.1 1908 Messina Straits earthquake reliable? Insights from a
novel inversion and sensitivity analysis of levelling data’ by M. Aloisi,
V. Bruno, F. Cannav
`
o, L. Ferranti, M. Mattia, C. Monaco and M. Palano,
Geophys. J. Int
, doi:10.1093/gji/ggu063.
Emolo, A., Cultrera, G., Franceschina, G., Pacor, F., Convertito, V., Cocco,
M. & Zollo, A., 2008. Ground motion scenarios for the 1997 Colfiorito,
central Italy, earthquake,
Ann. Geophys.,
51,
509–525.
Emolo, A., Iannaccone, G., Zollo, A. & Gorini, A., 2004. Inferences on
the source mechanisms of the 1930 Irpinia (Southern Italy) earthquake
from simulations of the kinematic rupture process,
Ann. Geophys.,
47
(6),
1743–1754.
Faccioli, E. & Cauzzi, C., 2006. Macroseismic intensities for seismic sce-
narios, estimated from instrumentally based correlations, in
Proceedings
of the First European Conference on Earthquake Engineering and Seis-
mology,
paper no. 569, Geneva, Switzerland.
Faenza, L. & Michelini, A., 2010. Regression analysis of MCS intensity
and ground motion parameters in Italy and its application in ShakeMap,
Geophys. J. Int.,
180,
1138–1152.
Gasperini, P., Bernardini, F., Valensise, G. & Boschi, E., 1999. Defining
seismogenic sources from historical earthquake felt reports,
Bull. seism.
Soc. Am.,
89,
94–110.
Imperatori, W. & Mai, M., 2012. Sensitivity of broad-band ground-motion
simulations to earthquake source and Earth structure variations: an appli-
cation to the Messina Straits (Italy),
Geophys. J. Int.,
188,
1103–1116 Joyner, W.B. & Boore, D.M., 1981. Peak horizontal acceleration and ve-
locity from strong-motion records including records from the 1979 Im-
perial Valley, California, earthquake,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
71,
2011–
2038.
Lay, T. & Wallace, T.C., 1995.
Modern Global Seismology,
Academic Press.
Locati, M., Camassi, R. & Stucchi, M. (eds), 2011. DBMI11,
the 2011 version of the Italian macroseismic database, Milano,
Bologna,
http://emidius.mi.ingv.it/DBMI11
(lastaccessed1August2013)
doi:10.6092/INGV.IT-DBMI11.
Mallet, R., 1862.
The Great Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857. The First
Principles of Observational Seismology,
Chapman & Hill.
Michelini, A., Lomax, A., Nardi, A., Rossi, A., Palombo, B. & Bono, A.,
2005. A modern re-examination of the locations of the 1905 Calabria and
the 1908 Messina Straits earthquakes,
Geophys. Res. Abstr.,
7,
EGU05-
A-07909.
Michelini, A., Faenza, L., Lauciani, V. & Malagnini, L., 2008. ShakeMap
implementation in Italy,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
79
(5), 688–697.
Mulargia, F. & Boschi, E., 1983. The 1908 Messina earthquake and re-
lated seismicity, in
Earthquakes: Observation, Theory and Interpretation
,
pp. 493–518, eds Kanamori, H. & Boschi, E.,
Proceedings of the Inter-
national School of Physics Enrico Fermi,
course 85, Elsevier.
Oglesby, D.D., Archuleta, R.J. & Nielsen, S.B., 1998. Earthquakes on dip-
ping faults: the effects of broken symmetry,
Science,
280
(5366), 1055–
1059.
Pettenati, F. & Sirovich, L., 2007. Validation of intensity-based source in-
version of three destructive California earthquakes,
Bull. seism. Soc. Am.,
97
(5), 1587–1606.
Pino, N. A., Giardini, D. & Boschi, E., 2000. The December 28, 1908,
Messina Straits, southern Italy, earthquake: waveform modeling of re-
gional seismograms,
J. geophys. Res.,
105
(B11), 25473–25492.
Pino,N.A.,Piatanesi,A.,Valensise,G.&Boschi,E.,2009.The28December
1908 Messina Straits earthquake (Mw 7.1): a great earthquake throughout
a century of seismology,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
80,
243–259.
Pino, N.A., Piatanesi, A., Valensise, G. & Boschi, E., 2010. Reply to “Com-
ment on ‘The 28 December 1908 Messina Straits Earthquake (Mw 7.1):
a great earthquake throughout a Century of Seismology,’ by N.A. Pino,
A. Piatanesi, G. Valensise, & E. Boschi” by A. Amoruso, Crescentini, L.
& Scarpa, R.,
Seism. Res. Lett.,
81,
229–231.
Sato, R., Abe, K., Okada, Y., Shimazaki, K. & Suzuki, Y., 1989.
The Hand-
book of Seismic Fault Parameters in Japan,
Kajima Institute Publishing
Co.
Schick, R., 1977. Eine seismotektonische Bearbeitung des Erdbebens von
Messina im Jahre 1908,
Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe E,
11,
ISBN:978–
3–510–96074–3.
Shebalin, N.V., 1973. Macroseismic data as information on source parame-
ters of large earthquakes,
Phys. Earth planet. Inter.,
6,
316–323.
Tuv
`
e, T., Bianco, F., Ib
́
a
̃
nez, J.M., Patan
́
e, D., Del Pezzo, E. & Bottari, A.,
2006. Attenuation study in the Straits of Messina area (Southern Italy),
Tectonophysics,
421,
173–185.
Wald, D.J., Quitoriano, V., Heaton, T.H., Kanamori, H., Scrivner, C.W.
& Worden, B.C., 1999. TriNet “ShakeMaps”: rapid generation of peak
ground-motion and intensity maps for earthquakes in southern California,
Earthq. Spectra,
15
(3), 537–556.
Wessel, P. & Smith, W.H.F., 1991. Free software helps map and display data,
EOS, Trans. Am. geophys. Un.,
72
(41), 441–446
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