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Magma emission rates fromshallow submarine eruptions using airborne thermal imaging
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
5V. Sorveglianza vulcanica ed emergenze
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/154(2014)
ISSN
0034-4257
Electronic ISSN
1879-0704
Publisher
Elsevier Inc NY Journals
Pages (printed)
219-225
Issued date
September 2014
Abstract
The effusion rate is the most important parameter to gatherwhen a volcanic eruption occurs, because it controls
the way inwhich a lava body grows, extends and expands, influencing its dimensional properties. Calculation of
lava flow volume from thermal images collected by helicopter surveys has been largely used during the last
decade for monitoring subaerial effusive eruptions. However, due to the depths where volcanic activity occurs,
monitoring submarine volcanic eruptions is a very difficult task. The 2011–2012 submarine volcanic eruption
at El Hierro, Canary Islands, has provided a unique and excellent opportunity to monitor eruptive processes
occurring on the seabed. The use of a hand-held thermal camera during daily helicopter flights allowed us to
estimate for the first time the daily and total erupted magma volumes from a submarine eruption. The volume
of magma emitted during this eruption has been estimated at 300 Mm3, giving an average effusion rate
of ~25 m3 s−1. Thermal imagery by helicopter proved to be a fast, inexpensive, safe and reliable technique of
monitoring volcanic eruptions when they occur on the shallow seabed.
the way inwhich a lava body grows, extends and expands, influencing its dimensional properties. Calculation of
lava flow volume from thermal images collected by helicopter surveys has been largely used during the last
decade for monitoring subaerial effusive eruptions. However, due to the depths where volcanic activity occurs,
monitoring submarine volcanic eruptions is a very difficult task. The 2011–2012 submarine volcanic eruption
at El Hierro, Canary Islands, has provided a unique and excellent opportunity to monitor eruptive processes
occurring on the seabed. The use of a hand-held thermal camera during daily helicopter flights allowed us to
estimate for the first time the daily and total erupted magma volumes from a submarine eruption. The volume
of magma emitted during this eruption has been estimated at 300 Mm3, giving an average effusion rate
of ~25 m3 s−1. Thermal imagery by helicopter proved to be a fast, inexpensive, safe and reliable technique of
monitoring volcanic eruptions when they occur on the shallow seabed.
Sponsors
This research was financially supported by the projects MAKAVOL
(MAC/3/C161) from the European Union MAC 2007–2013 Transnational
Cooperation Program as well as from the Cabildo Insular de Tenerife. We
are also grateful to the staff of El Hierro airport (AENA) for providing
logistical support.
(MAC/3/C161) from the European Union MAC 2007–2013 Transnational
Cooperation Program as well as from the Cabildo Insular de Tenerife. We
are also grateful to the staff of El Hierro airport (AENA) for providing
logistical support.
References
Applegarth, L. J., Pinkerton, H., James, M. R., & Calvari, S. (2010). Lava flow superposition:
The reactivation of flow units in compound flow fields. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, 194, 100–106.
Becerra, R., Guillén, C., & Dóniz, J. (2007). Erupción basáltica fisural al NE del volcán
monogénico de Orchilla, El Hierro, Canarias Caracteres geomorfológicos En Lario. In
G. J y Silva (Ed.), Contribuciones al estudio del período cuaternario, Aequa, Ávila
(pp. 133–134) (in spanish).
Calvari, S., Lodato, L., Steffke, A., Cristaldi, A., Harris, A. J. L., Spampinato, L., et al. (2010).
The 2007 Stromboli flank eruption: chronology of the events, and effusion rate measurements
from thermal images and satellite data. Journal of Geophysical Research,
115(B4), B04201.
Calvari, S., Neri, M., & Pinkerton, H. (2003). Effusion rate estimations during the 1999
summit eruption on Mt Etna, and growth of two distinct lava flow fields. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 119, 107–123.
Calvari, S., Spampinato, L., Lodato, L., Harris, A. J. L., Patrick, M. R., Dehn, J., et al. (2005).
Chronology and complex volcanic processes during the 2002–2003 flank eruption
at Stromboli volcano (Italy) reconstructed from direct observations and surveys
with a handheld thermal camera. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, B02201.
Chadwick,W.W., Wright, I. C., Jr., Schwarz-Schampera, U., Hyvernaud, O., Reymond, D., &
de Ronde, C. E. J. (2008). Cyclic eruptions and sector collapses at Monowai submarine
volcano, Kermadec arc: 1998–2007. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 9(10),
Q10014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008gc002113.
Colman, A., Sinton, J. M., White, S. M., McClinton, J. T., Bowles, J. A., Rubin, K. H., et al.
(2012). Effects of variable magma supply on mid-ocean ridge eruptions: Constraints
from mapped lava flow fields along the Galápagos Spreading Center. Geochemistry,
Geophysics, Geosystems, 13, Q08014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GC004163.
Deardorff, N. D., Cashman, K. V., & Chadwick, W. W., Jr. (2011). Observations of eruptive
plume dynamics and pyroclastic deposits from submarine explosive eruptions at
NWRota-1, Mariana arc. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 202, 47–59.
Dehn, J., Dean, K. G., Engle, K., & Izbekov, P. (2002). Thermal precursors in satellite images
of the 1999 eruption of Shishaldin Volcano. Bulletin of Volcanology, 64, 525–534.
Garcia, M.O., & Davies, M. G. (2001). Submarine growth and internal structure of ocean
island volcanoes based on submarine observations of Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii.
Geology, 29, 163–166.
Gee, M. J. R.,Watts, A. B., Masson, D.G., &Mitchell, N. C. (2001). Landslides and the evolution
of El Hierro in the Canary Islands. Marine Geology, 177, 271–293.
Gimeno, D., Aulinas, M., & Gisbert, G. (2012). Geochemical characterization of the initial
phase of El Hierro eruption. Minerals Magazine, 76(6), 1761.
González, P. J., Samsonov, S. V., Pepe, S., Tiampo, K. F., Tizzani, P., Casu, F., et al. (2013).
Magma storage and migration associated with the 2011–2012 El Hierro eruption:
Implications for crustal magmatic systems at oceanic island volcanoes. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 118, 4361–4377.
Guillou, H., Carracedo, J. C., Pérez Torrado, F. J., & Badiola, E. R. (1996). K–Ar ages and
magnetic stratigraphy of a hotspot-induced, fast grown oceanic island: El Hierro,
Canary Islands. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 73, 141–155.
Harris, A. J. L., Dehn, J., & Calvari, S. (2007). Lava effusion rate definition, measurement and
operational requirements: A review. Bulletin of Volcanology, 70, 1–22.
Harris, A. J. L., Dehn, J., Patrick, M., Calvari, S., Ripepe,M., & Lodato, L. (2005). Lava effusion
rates from hand-held thermal infrared imagery: An example from the June 2003
effusive activity at Stromboli. Bulletin of Volcanology, 68, 107–117.
Harris, A. J. L., Flynn, L. P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginis-Mark, P. J., Rowland, S. K., & Resing, J. A.
(1998). Calculation of lava effusion rates from Landsat TM data. Bulletin of Volcanology,
60, 52–71.
Harris, A. J. L., Steffke, A., Calvari, S., & Spampinato, L. (2011). Thirty years of satellitederived
lava discharge rates at Etna: Implications for steady volumetric output.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, B08204.
Hernández Pacheco, A. (1982). Geochemical characterization of the initial phase of El
Hierro eruption. Estudios Geológicos, 38, 15–25 (in spanish).
Hoernle, K., Tilton, G., & Schmincke, H. U. (1991). Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic evolution of Gran
Canaria: Evidence for shallow enriched mantle beneath the Canary Islands. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 106, 44–63.
Hon, K., Kauahikaua, J., Denlinger, R., & Mackay, K. (1994). Emplacement and inflation of
pahoehoe sheet flows: Observations andmeasurements of active lava flows on Kilauea
Volcano, Hawaii. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 106, 351–370.
Ibáñez, J. M., De Angelis, S., Díaz-Moreno, A., Hernández, P. A., Alguacil, G., Posadas, A.,
et al. (2012). Insights into the 2011–2012 submarine eruption off the coast of El
Hierro (Canary Islands, Spain) from statistical analysis of earthquake activity.
Geophysical Journal International, 2, 659–670.
Kilburn, C. R. J., & Lopes, R. M. C. (1988). The growth of AA lava flow fields on Mount Etna,
Sicily. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93(B12), 14759–14772.
Longpré, M.A., Klügel, A., Diehl, A., & Stix, J. (2014s). Mixing in mantle magma reservoirs
prior to and during the 2011–2012 eruption at El Hierro, Canary Islands. Geology.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G351651 (in press).
Masson, D.G., Watts, A. B., Geea, M. J. R., Urgeles, R., Mitchell, N. C., Le Bas, T. P., et al.
(2002). Slope failures on the flanks of the western Canary Islands. Earth-Science
Reviews, 57(1–2), 1–35.
Moore, J. G., & Chadwick, W. W. (1995). Offshore geology of Mauna Loa and adjacent
areas, Hawaii. In J.M. Rhodes, & J. P. Lockwood (Eds.), Mauna Loa revealed: Structure,
composition, history, and hazards. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/GM092p0021.
Moore, J. G., Phillips, R. L., Grigg, R. W., Peterson, D. W., & Swanson, D. A. (1973). Flow of
lava into the sea, 1969–1971, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, 84, 537–546.
Navarro, J. M., & Soler, C. (1994). El agua en El Hierro, Resumen del Avance del Plan
Hidrológico Public Cabildo de El Hierro Con OP Gob Canarias. , 1–59 (in Spanish).
Nogami, K. (2004). Relationship in chemical composition between mother solution and
allophane-like aluminosilicate precipitate through neutralization of acid hydrothermal
water by seawater. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 56(4), 457–462.
Nogami, K., Yoshida, M., & Osaka, J. (1993). Chemical composition of discolored seawater
around Satsuma-Iwojima, Kagoshima, Japan. Bulletin Volcanologique Society of Japan,
38(3), 71–77.
Padilla, G., Hernández, P. A., Padrón, E., Barrancos, J., Pérez, N. M., Melián, G., et al. (2013).
Soil gas radon emissions and volcanic activity at El Hierro (Canary Islands): The 2011–
2012 submarine eruption. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 14(2), 432–447.
Padrón, E., Pérez, N.M., Hernández, P. A., Sumino, H.,Melián, G., Barrancos, J., et al. (2013).
Diffusive helium emissions as a precursory sign of volcanic unrest. Geology, 41,
539–542.
Pérez, N. M., Padilla, G. D., Padrón, E., Hernández, P. A., Melián, G. V., Barrancos, J., et al.
(2012). Precursory diffuse CO2 and H2S emission signatures of the 2011–2012 El
Hierro submarine eruption: Canary Islands. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L16311.
Pinkerton, H., James, M., & Jones, A. (2002). Surface temperature measurements of active
lava flows on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 113, 159–176.
Resing, J., Rubin, K. H., Embley, R., Lupton, J., Baker, E. T., Dziak, R., et al. (2011). Active
submarine eruption of boninite in the northeastern Lau Basin. Nature Geoscience, 4,
799–806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1275.
Rivera, J., Lastras, G., Canals, M., Acosta, J., Arrese, B., Hermida, N., et al. (2013). Construction
of an oceanic island: Insights from the El Hierro (Canary Islands) 2011–2012
submarine volcanic eruption. Geology, 41, 355–358.
Sagiya, T., Barrancos, J., Calvo, D., Padrón, E., Padilla, G., Hernández, P. A., et al. (2012).
Crustal deformation during the 2011 volcanic crisis of El Hierro, Canary Islands, revealed
by continuous GPS observation. EGU Reference Shelf, 14, EGU.
Sinton, J., Bergmanis, E., Rubin, K., Batiza, R., Gregg, T. K. P., Gronvold, K., et al. (2002).
Volcanic eruptions on mid-ocean ridges: New evidence from the superfast spreading
East Pacific Rise, 17°–19°S. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(B6), 2115. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1029/2000JB000090.
Spampinato, L., Calvari, S., Oppenheimer, C., & Boschi, E. (2011). Volcano surveillance
using infrared cameras. Earth-Science Reviews, 106, 63–91.
Spampinato, L., Calvari, S., Oppenheimer, C., & Lodato, L. (2008). Shallow magma transport
for the 2002–3 Mt Etna eruption inferred from thermal infrared surveys.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 177(2), 301–312.
Stroncik, N. A., Klügel, A., & Hansteen, T. H. (2009). The magmatic plumbing system beneath
El Hierro (Canary Islands): Constraints from phenocrysts and naturally
quenched basaltic glasses in submarine rocks. Control Mining Petroleum, 157(5),
593–607.
Thordarson, T., & Larsen, G. (2007). Volcanismin Iceland in historical time: Volcano types,
eruption styles and eruptive history. Journal of Geodynamics, 43, 118–152.
Tribble, G. W. (1991). Underwater observations of active lava flows from Kilauea volcano,
Hawaii. Geology, 19, 633–636.
Wadge, G. (1981). The variation of magma discharge during basaltic eruption. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 11, 139–168.
Wright, R., Blake, S., Harris, A. J. L., & Rothery, D. A. (2001). A simple explanation for the
space-based calculation of lava eruption rates. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
192, 223–233.
Xie, C. (2012). Interactive
The reactivation of flow units in compound flow fields. Journal of Volcanology and
Geothermal Research, 194, 100–106.
Becerra, R., Guillén, C., & Dóniz, J. (2007). Erupción basáltica fisural al NE del volcán
monogénico de Orchilla, El Hierro, Canarias Caracteres geomorfológicos En Lario. In
G. J y Silva (Ed.), Contribuciones al estudio del período cuaternario, Aequa, Ávila
(pp. 133–134) (in spanish).
Calvari, S., Lodato, L., Steffke, A., Cristaldi, A., Harris, A. J. L., Spampinato, L., et al. (2010).
The 2007 Stromboli flank eruption: chronology of the events, and effusion rate measurements
from thermal images and satellite data. Journal of Geophysical Research,
115(B4), B04201.
Calvari, S., Neri, M., & Pinkerton, H. (2003). Effusion rate estimations during the 1999
summit eruption on Mt Etna, and growth of two distinct lava flow fields. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 119, 107–123.
Calvari, S., Spampinato, L., Lodato, L., Harris, A. J. L., Patrick, M. R., Dehn, J., et al. (2005).
Chronology and complex volcanic processes during the 2002–2003 flank eruption
at Stromboli volcano (Italy) reconstructed from direct observations and surveys
with a handheld thermal camera. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, B02201.
Chadwick,W.W., Wright, I. C., Jr., Schwarz-Schampera, U., Hyvernaud, O., Reymond, D., &
de Ronde, C. E. J. (2008). Cyclic eruptions and sector collapses at Monowai submarine
volcano, Kermadec arc: 1998–2007. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 9(10),
Q10014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008gc002113.
Colman, A., Sinton, J. M., White, S. M., McClinton, J. T., Bowles, J. A., Rubin, K. H., et al.
(2012). Effects of variable magma supply on mid-ocean ridge eruptions: Constraints
from mapped lava flow fields along the Galápagos Spreading Center. Geochemistry,
Geophysics, Geosystems, 13, Q08014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GC004163.
Deardorff, N. D., Cashman, K. V., & Chadwick, W. W., Jr. (2011). Observations of eruptive
plume dynamics and pyroclastic deposits from submarine explosive eruptions at
NWRota-1, Mariana arc. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 202, 47–59.
Dehn, J., Dean, K. G., Engle, K., & Izbekov, P. (2002). Thermal precursors in satellite images
of the 1999 eruption of Shishaldin Volcano. Bulletin of Volcanology, 64, 525–534.
Garcia, M.O., & Davies, M. G. (2001). Submarine growth and internal structure of ocean
island volcanoes based on submarine observations of Mauna Loa volcano, Hawaii.
Geology, 29, 163–166.
Gee, M. J. R.,Watts, A. B., Masson, D.G., &Mitchell, N. C. (2001). Landslides and the evolution
of El Hierro in the Canary Islands. Marine Geology, 177, 271–293.
Gimeno, D., Aulinas, M., & Gisbert, G. (2012). Geochemical characterization of the initial
phase of El Hierro eruption. Minerals Magazine, 76(6), 1761.
González, P. J., Samsonov, S. V., Pepe, S., Tiampo, K. F., Tizzani, P., Casu, F., et al. (2013).
Magma storage and migration associated with the 2011–2012 El Hierro eruption:
Implications for crustal magmatic systems at oceanic island volcanoes. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 118, 4361–4377.
Guillou, H., Carracedo, J. C., Pérez Torrado, F. J., & Badiola, E. R. (1996). K–Ar ages and
magnetic stratigraphy of a hotspot-induced, fast grown oceanic island: El Hierro,
Canary Islands. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 73, 141–155.
Harris, A. J. L., Dehn, J., & Calvari, S. (2007). Lava effusion rate definition, measurement and
operational requirements: A review. Bulletin of Volcanology, 70, 1–22.
Harris, A. J. L., Dehn, J., Patrick, M., Calvari, S., Ripepe,M., & Lodato, L. (2005). Lava effusion
rates from hand-held thermal infrared imagery: An example from the June 2003
effusive activity at Stromboli. Bulletin of Volcanology, 68, 107–117.
Harris, A. J. L., Flynn, L. P., Keszthelyi, L., Mouginis-Mark, P. J., Rowland, S. K., & Resing, J. A.
(1998). Calculation of lava effusion rates from Landsat TM data. Bulletin of Volcanology,
60, 52–71.
Harris, A. J. L., Steffke, A., Calvari, S., & Spampinato, L. (2011). Thirty years of satellitederived
lava discharge rates at Etna: Implications for steady volumetric output.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 116, B08204.
Hernández Pacheco, A. (1982). Geochemical characterization of the initial phase of El
Hierro eruption. Estudios Geológicos, 38, 15–25 (in spanish).
Hoernle, K., Tilton, G., & Schmincke, H. U. (1991). Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic evolution of Gran
Canaria: Evidence for shallow enriched mantle beneath the Canary Islands. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, 106, 44–63.
Hon, K., Kauahikaua, J., Denlinger, R., & Mackay, K. (1994). Emplacement and inflation of
pahoehoe sheet flows: Observations andmeasurements of active lava flows on Kilauea
Volcano, Hawaii. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 106, 351–370.
Ibáñez, J. M., De Angelis, S., Díaz-Moreno, A., Hernández, P. A., Alguacil, G., Posadas, A.,
et al. (2012). Insights into the 2011–2012 submarine eruption off the coast of El
Hierro (Canary Islands, Spain) from statistical analysis of earthquake activity.
Geophysical Journal International, 2, 659–670.
Kilburn, C. R. J., & Lopes, R. M. C. (1988). The growth of AA lava flow fields on Mount Etna,
Sicily. Journal of Geophysical Research, 93(B12), 14759–14772.
Longpré, M.A., Klügel, A., Diehl, A., & Stix, J. (2014s). Mixing in mantle magma reservoirs
prior to and during the 2011–2012 eruption at El Hierro, Canary Islands. Geology.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/G351651 (in press).
Masson, D.G., Watts, A. B., Geea, M. J. R., Urgeles, R., Mitchell, N. C., Le Bas, T. P., et al.
(2002). Slope failures on the flanks of the western Canary Islands. Earth-Science
Reviews, 57(1–2), 1–35.
Moore, J. G., & Chadwick, W. W. (1995). Offshore geology of Mauna Loa and adjacent
areas, Hawaii. In J.M. Rhodes, & J. P. Lockwood (Eds.), Mauna Loa revealed: Structure,
composition, history, and hazards. Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/GM092p0021.
Moore, J. G., Phillips, R. L., Grigg, R. W., Peterson, D. W., & Swanson, D. A. (1973). Flow of
lava into the sea, 1969–1971, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, 84, 537–546.
Navarro, J. M., & Soler, C. (1994). El agua en El Hierro, Resumen del Avance del Plan
Hidrológico Public Cabildo de El Hierro Con OP Gob Canarias. , 1–59 (in Spanish).
Nogami, K. (2004). Relationship in chemical composition between mother solution and
allophane-like aluminosilicate precipitate through neutralization of acid hydrothermal
water by seawater. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 56(4), 457–462.
Nogami, K., Yoshida, M., & Osaka, J. (1993). Chemical composition of discolored seawater
around Satsuma-Iwojima, Kagoshima, Japan. Bulletin Volcanologique Society of Japan,
38(3), 71–77.
Padilla, G., Hernández, P. A., Padrón, E., Barrancos, J., Pérez, N. M., Melián, G., et al. (2013).
Soil gas radon emissions and volcanic activity at El Hierro (Canary Islands): The 2011–
2012 submarine eruption. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems, 14(2), 432–447.
Padrón, E., Pérez, N.M., Hernández, P. A., Sumino, H.,Melián, G., Barrancos, J., et al. (2013).
Diffusive helium emissions as a precursory sign of volcanic unrest. Geology, 41,
539–542.
Pérez, N. M., Padilla, G. D., Padrón, E., Hernández, P. A., Melián, G. V., Barrancos, J., et al.
(2012). Precursory diffuse CO2 and H2S emission signatures of the 2011–2012 El
Hierro submarine eruption: Canary Islands. Geophysical Research Letters, 39, L16311.
Pinkerton, H., James, M., & Jones, A. (2002). Surface temperature measurements of active
lava flows on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research, 113, 159–176.
Resing, J., Rubin, K. H., Embley, R., Lupton, J., Baker, E. T., Dziak, R., et al. (2011). Active
submarine eruption of boninite in the northeastern Lau Basin. Nature Geoscience, 4,
799–806. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1275.
Rivera, J., Lastras, G., Canals, M., Acosta, J., Arrese, B., Hermida, N., et al. (2013). Construction
of an oceanic island: Insights from the El Hierro (Canary Islands) 2011–2012
submarine volcanic eruption. Geology, 41, 355–358.
Sagiya, T., Barrancos, J., Calvo, D., Padrón, E., Padilla, G., Hernández, P. A., et al. (2012).
Crustal deformation during the 2011 volcanic crisis of El Hierro, Canary Islands, revealed
by continuous GPS observation. EGU Reference Shelf, 14, EGU.
Sinton, J., Bergmanis, E., Rubin, K., Batiza, R., Gregg, T. K. P., Gronvold, K., et al. (2002).
Volcanic eruptions on mid-ocean ridges: New evidence from the superfast spreading
East Pacific Rise, 17°–19°S. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107(B6), 2115. http://dx.
doi.org/10.1029/2000JB000090.
Spampinato, L., Calvari, S., Oppenheimer, C., & Boschi, E. (2011). Volcano surveillance
using infrared cameras. Earth-Science Reviews, 106, 63–91.
Spampinato, L., Calvari, S., Oppenheimer, C., & Lodato, L. (2008). Shallow magma transport
for the 2002–3 Mt Etna eruption inferred from thermal infrared surveys.
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 177(2), 301–312.
Stroncik, N. A., Klügel, A., & Hansteen, T. H. (2009). The magmatic plumbing system beneath
El Hierro (Canary Islands): Constraints from phenocrysts and naturally
quenched basaltic glasses in submarine rocks. Control Mining Petroleum, 157(5),
593–607.
Thordarson, T., & Larsen, G. (2007). Volcanismin Iceland in historical time: Volcano types,
eruption styles and eruptive history. Journal of Geodynamics, 43, 118–152.
Tribble, G. W. (1991). Underwater observations of active lava flows from Kilauea volcano,
Hawaii. Geology, 19, 633–636.
Wadge, G. (1981). The variation of magma discharge during basaltic eruption. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 11, 139–168.
Wright, R., Blake, S., Harris, A. J. L., & Rothery, D. A. (2001). A simple explanation for the
space-based calculation of lava eruption rates. Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
192, 223–233.
Xie, C. (2012). Interactive
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