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Retrospective investigation of geomagnetic field time-series during the 2009 L'Aquila seismic sequence
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
2.6. TTC - Laboratorio di gravimetria, magnetismo ed elettromagnetismo in aree attive
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/ 530-531 (2012)
ISSN
0040-1951
Electronic ISSN
1879-3266
Publisher
Elsevier Science Limited
Pages (printed)
310–317
Issued date
January 2012
Abstract
This paper reports the analyses of ULF (Ultra-Low-Frequency) geomagnetic field observations coming from the Geomagnetic Observatory of L'Aquila during the period 2008–2009. This period includes the L'Aquila
2009 seismic sequence, where the main shock of 6 April heavily damaged the medieval centre of the town and its surrounding area, causing 308 deaths, more than 1000 injuries and about 60,000 displaced people. Recently,
several publications have documented the observation of precursory signals which occurred before the 6 April earthquake (e.g. Eftaxias et al., 2009, 2010), while others do not find any pre-earthquake anomaly
(e.g. Villante et al., 2010; Di Lorenzo et al., 2011). In light of this, the goal of this study is to carry out further
retrospective investigations. ULF magnetic field data are investigated by means of conventional analyses of magnetic polarization ratio, improved magnetic polarization ratio, and fractal analysis. In addition, total geomagnetic field data coming from the INGV Central Italy tectonomagnetic network have also been investigated, using the simple inter-station differentiation method. Within the limits of these methods, no magnetic anomalous signal which may be reasonably characterized as a precursor of the L'Aquila earthquakes has
been found.
2009 seismic sequence, where the main shock of 6 April heavily damaged the medieval centre of the town and its surrounding area, causing 308 deaths, more than 1000 injuries and about 60,000 displaced people. Recently,
several publications have documented the observation of precursory signals which occurred before the 6 April earthquake (e.g. Eftaxias et al., 2009, 2010), while others do not find any pre-earthquake anomaly
(e.g. Villante et al., 2010; Di Lorenzo et al., 2011). In light of this, the goal of this study is to carry out further
retrospective investigations. ULF magnetic field data are investigated by means of conventional analyses of magnetic polarization ratio, improved magnetic polarization ratio, and fractal analysis. In addition, total geomagnetic field data coming from the INGV Central Italy tectonomagnetic network have also been investigated, using the simple inter-station differentiation method. Within the limits of these methods, no magnetic anomalous signal which may be reasonably characterized as a precursor of the L'Aquila earthquakes has
been found.
References
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P.H.M., Solovieva, M., Molchanov, O., Biernat, H.K., Stangl, G., Lammer, H.,
Moldovan, I., Voller, W., Ampferer, M., 2010. Decrease of VLF transmitter signal
and Chorus-whistler waves before l'Aquila earthquake occurrence. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 10, 1487–1494. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1487-2010.
Breiner, S., 1964. Piezomagnetic effect at the time of local earthquakes. Nature 202,
790–791. doi:10.1038/202790a0 Letter.
Campbell, W.H., 2009. Natural magnetic disturbance fields, not precursors, preceding
the Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research 114, A05307.
doi:10.1029/2008JA013932.
Crampin, S., Gao, Y., 2010. Earthquakes can be stress-forecast. Geophysical Journal International
180, 1124–1127. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04475.x.
Di Lorenzo, C., Palangio, P., Santarato, G., Meloni, A., Villante, U., Santarelli, L., 2011. Non-inductive
components of electromagnetic signals associated with L'Aquila earthquake sequences
estimated by means of inter-station impulse response functions. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, 1047–1055. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1047-2011.
Eftaxias, K.,Kapiris,P., Polygiannakis, J.,Bogris,N., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Peratzakis, A.,
Hadjicontis, V., 2001. Signature of pending earthquake from electromagnetic anomalies.
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Eftaxias, K., Athanasopoulou, L., Balasis, G., Kalimeri, M., Nikolopoulos, S., Contoyiannis,
Y., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Nomicos, C., 2009. Unfolding the procedure of
characterizing recorded ultra-low frequency, kHZ and MHz electromagnetic anomalies
prior to the L'Aquila earthquake as pre-seismic ones—part 1. Natural Hazards
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Y., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Nomicos, C., 2010. Unfolding the procedure of
characterizing recorded ultra low frequency, kHZ and MHz electromagnetic anomalies
prior to the L'Aquila earthquake as pre-seismic ones—part 2. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 10, 275–294. doi:10.5194/nhess-10-275-2010.
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Abruzzo 6 April 2009 earthquake. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 9,
2073–2084. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-2073-2009.
Gotoh, K., Hayakawa, M., Smirnova, N.A., Hattori, K., 2004. Fractal analysis of seismogenic
ULF emissions. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29, 419–424.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2003.11.013.
Hattori, K., 2004. ULF geomagnetic changes associated with large earthquakes. TAO 15
(3), 329–360.
Hayakawa, M., Hobara, Y., 2010. Current status of seismo-electromagnetics for shortterm
earthquake prediction. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 1 (2),
115–155. doi:10.1080/19475705.2010.486933.
Hayakawa, M., Kawate, R., Molchanov, O.A., Yumoto, K., 1996. Results of ultra-lowfrequency
magnetic field measurements during the Guam earthquake of 8 August
1993. Geophysical Research Letters 23 (3), 241–244. doi:10.1029/95GL02863.
Hayakawa, M., Ito, T., Smirnova, N., 1999. Fractal analysis of ULF geomagnetic data associated
with the Guam earthquake on August 8, 1993. Geophysical Research Letters
26, 2797–2800. doi:10.1029/1999GL005367.
Hayakawa, M., Hattori, K., Ohta, K., 2007. Monitoring of ULF (ultra-low-frequency) geomagnetic
variations associated with earthquakes. Sensors 7, 1108–1122.
doi:10.3390/s7071108.
Higuchi, T., 1988. Approach to an irregular time on the basis of fractal theory. Physica
D: Nonlinear Phenomena 31, 277–283. doi:10.1016/0167-2789(88)90081-4.
Ida, Y., Yang, D., Li, Q., Sun, H., Hayakawa, M., 2008. Detection of ULF electromagnetic
emissions as a precursor to an earthquake in China with an improved polarization
analysis. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 8, 775–777. doi:10.5194/
nhess-8-775-2008.
Ito, K., Matsuzaki, M., 1990. Earthquakes as self-organized critical phenomena. Journal
of Geophysical Research 95, 6853–6860. doi:10.1029/JB095iB05p06853.
Johnston, M.J.S., 1997. Review of electrical and magnetic fields accompanying seismic and
volcanic activity. Surveys in Geophysics 18, 441–475. doi:10.1023/A:1006500408086.
Johnston, M.J.S., Sasai, Y., Egbert, G.D., Muller, R.J., 2006. Seismomagnetic effects from
the long-awaited 28 September 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield earthquake. Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America 96 (4B), S206–S220. doi:10.1785/0120050810.
Little, M., McSharry, P., Moroz, I., Roberts, S., 2006. Nonlinear, biophysically-informed
speech pathology detection. Proceedings of ICASSP 2006, 2. IEEE Publishers, Toulouse,
France. II-1080–1083.
Masci, F., 2010. On claimed ULF seismogenic fractal signatures in the geomagnetic field.
Journal of Geophysical Research A10236. doi:10.1029/2010JA015311.
Masci, F., 2011a. On the seismogenic increase of the ratio of the ULF geomagnetic field components.
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2011.05.001.
Masci, F., 2011b. On the recent reaffirmation ofULFmagnetic earthquakes precursors. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, 2193–2198. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-2193-2011.
Masci, F., 2012. Comment on “Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) European multi station magnetic
field analysis before and during the 2009 earthquake at L'Aquila regarding regional
geotechnical information” by Prattes et al. (2011). Natural Hazards and
Earth System Sciences. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-1-2012.
Masci, F., Palangio, P., Di Persio, M., Di Lorenzo, C., 2007. The development of the INGV
tectonomagnetic network in the frame of the MEM Project. Natural Hazards and
Earth System Sciences 7, 473–478. doi:10.5194/nhess-7-473-2007.
Meloni, A., Mele, G., Palangio, P., 1998. Tectonomagnetic field observations in central
Italy 1989–1995. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 105, 145–152.
doi:10.1016/S0031-9201(97)00087-3.
Mezentsev, A.Yu., Hayakawa, M., Hattori, K., 2009. Fractal ULF signatures related to
seismic processes. Journal of Atmospheric Electricity 29 (2), 81–93.
Molchanov, O., Hayakawa, M., 2008. Seismo Electromagnetics and Related Phenomena:
History and latest results. TERRAPUB, Tokyo, p. 189. Molchanov, O.A., Kopytenko, Yu.A., Voronov, P.M., Kopytenko, E.A., Matiashvili, T.G.,
Fraser-Smith, A.C., Bernardy, A., 1992. Results of ULF magnetic field measurements
near the epicenters of the Spitak (Ms=6.9) and Loma Prieta (Ms=7.1) earthquakes:
comparative analysis. Geophysical Research Letters 19, 1495–1498.
doi:10.1029/92GL01152.
Moore, G.V., 1964. Magnetic disturbance preceding the 1964 Alaska earthquake. Nature
203, 508–509. doi:10.1038/203508b0 Letter.
Peng, C.K., Havlin, S., Stanley, H.E., Goldberger, A.L., 1995. Quantification of scaling exponents
and crossover phenomena in nonstationary heartbeat time series. Chaos 5,
82–87. doi:10.1063/1.166141.
Perrone, L., Korsunova, L.P., Mikhailov, A.V., 2010. Ionospheric precursors for crustal earthquakes
in Italy. Annales Geophysicae 28, 941–950. doi:10.5194/angeo-28-941-2010.
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anomalies” by K. Eftaxias et al. Geophysical Research Letters 29 (18),
1871. doi:10.1029/2002GL015328.
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multi station magnetic field analysis before and during the 2009 earthquake at
L'Aquila regarding regional geotechnical information. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences 11, 1959–1968. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1959-2011.
Pulinets, S.A., Boyarchuk, K.A., 2004. Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes. Springer,
Berlin, Germany, p. 315.
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beads. Physical Review Letters 102. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.078701.
Rozhnoi, A., Solovieva, M., Molchanov, O., Schwingenschuh, K., Boudjada, M., Biagi, P.F.,
Maggipinto, T., Castellana, L., Ermini, A., Hayakawa, M., 2009. Anomalies in VLF
radio signals prior the Abruzzo earthquake (M=6.3) on 6 April 2009. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 9, 1727–1732. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1727-2009.
Saito, T., 1969. Geomagnetic pulsations. Space Science Reviews 10, 319–342.
doi:10.1007/BF00203620.
Smirnova, N.A., Hayakawa, M., 2007. Fractal characteristic of ground-observed ULF
emissions in relation to geomagnetic and seismic activities. Journal of Atmospheric
and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 69, 1833–1841. doi:10.1016/j.jastp. 2007.08.001.
Smirnova, N., Hayakawa, M., Gotoh, K., Volobuev, D., 2001. Scaling characteristics of the
ULF geomagnetic fields at the Guam seismoactive area and their dynamics in relation
to the earthquake. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 1, 119–126.
doi:10.5194/nhess-1-119-2001.
Stacey, F.D., 1963. Seismo-magnetic effect and the possibility of forecasting earthquakes.
Nature 200, 1083. doi:10.1038/2001083b0 Letter.
Thomas, J.N., Love, J.J., Johnston, M.J.S., 2009a. On the reported magnetic precursor of
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquakes. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
173, 207–215. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2008.11.014.
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precursor of the 1993 Guam earthquake. Geophysical Research Letters 36,
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before strong earthquakes (M>6.0) using DEMETER and GPS data. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences 10, 7–18. doi:10.5194/nhess-10-7-2010.
Bak, P., Tang, C., 1989. Earthquakes as self-organized critical phenomenon. Journal of
Geophysical Research 94 (B11), 15635–15637. doi:10.1029/JB094iB11p15635.
Boudjada, M.Y., Schwingenschuh, K., Doller, R., Rohznoi, A., Parrot, M., Biagi, P.F., Galopeau,
P.H.M., Solovieva, M., Molchanov, O., Biernat, H.K., Stangl, G., Lammer, H.,
Moldovan, I., Voller, W., Ampferer, M., 2010. Decrease of VLF transmitter signal
and Chorus-whistler waves before l'Aquila earthquake occurrence. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 10, 1487–1494. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1487-2010.
Breiner, S., 1964. Piezomagnetic effect at the time of local earthquakes. Nature 202,
790–791. doi:10.1038/202790a0 Letter.
Campbell, W.H., 2009. Natural magnetic disturbance fields, not precursors, preceding
the Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Geophysical Research 114, A05307.
doi:10.1029/2008JA013932.
Crampin, S., Gao, Y., 2010. Earthquakes can be stress-forecast. Geophysical Journal International
180, 1124–1127. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2009.04475.x.
Di Lorenzo, C., Palangio, P., Santarato, G., Meloni, A., Villante, U., Santarelli, L., 2011. Non-inductive
components of electromagnetic signals associated with L'Aquila earthquake sequences
estimated by means of inter-station impulse response functions. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, 1047–1055. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1047-2011.
Eftaxias, K.,Kapiris,P., Polygiannakis, J.,Bogris,N., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Peratzakis, A.,
Hadjicontis, V., 2001. Signature of pending earthquake from electromagnetic anomalies.
Geophysical Research Letters 28 (17), 3321. doi:10.1029/ 2001GL013124.
Eftaxias, K., Athanasopoulou, L., Balasis, G., Kalimeri, M., Nikolopoulos, S., Contoyiannis,
Y., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Nomicos, C., 2009. Unfolding the procedure of
characterizing recorded ultra-low frequency, kHZ and MHz electromagnetic anomalies
prior to the L'Aquila earthquake as pre-seismic ones—part 1. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 9, 1953–1971. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1953-2009.
Eftaxias, K., Athanasopoulou, L., Balasis, G., Kalimeri, M., Nikolopoulos, S., Contoyiannis,
Y., Kopanas, J., Antonopoulos, G., Nomicos, C., 2010. Unfolding the procedure of
characterizing recorded ultra low frequency, kHZ and MHz electromagnetic anomalies
prior to the L'Aquila earthquake as pre-seismic ones—part 2. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 10, 275–294. doi:10.5194/nhess-10-275-2010.
Geller, R.J., 1997. Earthquake prediction: a critical review. Geophysical Journal International
131, 425–450. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1997.tb06588.x.
Geller, R.J., Jackson, D.D., Kagan, Y.Y., Mulargia, F., 1997. Earthquakes cannot be predicted.
Science 275, 1616. doi:10.1126/science.275.5306.1616. Genzano, N., Aliano, C., Corrado, R., Filizzola, C., Lisi, M., Mazzeo, G., Paciello, R., Pergola,
N., Tramutoli, V., 2009. RST analysis of MSG-SEVIRI TIR radiances at the time of the
Abruzzo 6 April 2009 earthquake. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 9,
2073–2084. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-2073-2009.
Gotoh, K., Hayakawa, M., Smirnova, N.A., Hattori, K., 2004. Fractal analysis of seismogenic
ULF emissions. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 29, 419–424.
doi:10.1016/j.pce.2003.11.013.
Hattori, K., 2004. ULF geomagnetic changes associated with large earthquakes. TAO 15
(3), 329–360.
Hayakawa, M., Hobara, Y., 2010. Current status of seismo-electromagnetics for shortterm
earthquake prediction. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk 1 (2),
115–155. doi:10.1080/19475705.2010.486933.
Hayakawa, M., Kawate, R., Molchanov, O.A., Yumoto, K., 1996. Results of ultra-lowfrequency
magnetic field measurements during the Guam earthquake of 8 August
1993. Geophysical Research Letters 23 (3), 241–244. doi:10.1029/95GL02863.
Hayakawa, M., Ito, T., Smirnova, N., 1999. Fractal analysis of ULF geomagnetic data associated
with the Guam earthquake on August 8, 1993. Geophysical Research Letters
26, 2797–2800. doi:10.1029/1999GL005367.
Hayakawa, M., Hattori, K., Ohta, K., 2007. Monitoring of ULF (ultra-low-frequency) geomagnetic
variations associated with earthquakes. Sensors 7, 1108–1122.
doi:10.3390/s7071108.
Higuchi, T., 1988. Approach to an irregular time on the basis of fractal theory. Physica
D: Nonlinear Phenomena 31, 277–283. doi:10.1016/0167-2789(88)90081-4.
Ida, Y., Yang, D., Li, Q., Sun, H., Hayakawa, M., 2008. Detection of ULF electromagnetic
emissions as a precursor to an earthquake in China with an improved polarization
analysis. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 8, 775–777. doi:10.5194/
nhess-8-775-2008.
Ito, K., Matsuzaki, M., 1990. Earthquakes as self-organized critical phenomena. Journal
of Geophysical Research 95, 6853–6860. doi:10.1029/JB095iB05p06853.
Johnston, M.J.S., 1997. Review of electrical and magnetic fields accompanying seismic and
volcanic activity. Surveys in Geophysics 18, 441–475. doi:10.1023/A:1006500408086.
Johnston, M.J.S., Sasai, Y., Egbert, G.D., Muller, R.J., 2006. Seismomagnetic effects from
the long-awaited 28 September 2004 M 6.0 Parkfield earthquake. Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America 96 (4B), S206–S220. doi:10.1785/0120050810.
Little, M., McSharry, P., Moroz, I., Roberts, S., 2006. Nonlinear, biophysically-informed
speech pathology detection. Proceedings of ICASSP 2006, 2. IEEE Publishers, Toulouse,
France. II-1080–1083.
Masci, F., 2010. On claimed ULF seismogenic fractal signatures in the geomagnetic field.
Journal of Geophysical Research A10236. doi:10.1029/2010JA015311.
Masci, F., 2011a. On the seismogenic increase of the ratio of the ULF geomagnetic field components.
Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2011.05.001.
Masci, F., 2011b. On the recent reaffirmation ofULFmagnetic earthquakes precursors. Natural
Hazards and Earth System Sciences 11, 2193–2198. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-2193-2011.
Masci, F., 2012. Comment on “Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) European multi station magnetic
field analysis before and during the 2009 earthquake at L'Aquila regarding regional
geotechnical information” by Prattes et al. (2011). Natural Hazards and
Earth System Sciences. doi:10.5194/nhess-12-1-2012.
Masci, F., Palangio, P., Di Persio, M., Di Lorenzo, C., 2007. The development of the INGV
tectonomagnetic network in the frame of the MEM Project. Natural Hazards and
Earth System Sciences 7, 473–478. doi:10.5194/nhess-7-473-2007.
Meloni, A., Mele, G., Palangio, P., 1998. Tectonomagnetic field observations in central
Italy 1989–1995. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 105, 145–152.
doi:10.1016/S0031-9201(97)00087-3.
Mezentsev, A.Yu., Hayakawa, M., Hattori, K., 2009. Fractal ULF signatures related to
seismic processes. Journal of Atmospheric Electricity 29 (2), 81–93.
Molchanov, O., Hayakawa, M., 2008. Seismo Electromagnetics and Related Phenomena:
History and latest results. TERRAPUB, Tokyo, p. 189. Molchanov, O.A., Kopytenko, Yu.A., Voronov, P.M., Kopytenko, E.A., Matiashvili, T.G.,
Fraser-Smith, A.C., Bernardy, A., 1992. Results of ULF magnetic field measurements
near the epicenters of the Spitak (Ms=6.9) and Loma Prieta (Ms=7.1) earthquakes:
comparative analysis. Geophysical Research Letters 19, 1495–1498.
doi:10.1029/92GL01152.
Moore, G.V., 1964. Magnetic disturbance preceding the 1964 Alaska earthquake. Nature
203, 508–509. doi:10.1038/203508b0 Letter.
Peng, C.K., Havlin, S., Stanley, H.E., Goldberger, A.L., 1995. Quantification of scaling exponents
and crossover phenomena in nonstationary heartbeat time series. Chaos 5,
82–87. doi:10.1063/1.166141.
Perrone, L., Korsunova, L.P., Mikhailov, A.V., 2010. Ionospheric precursors for crustal earthquakes
in Italy. Annales Geophysicae 28, 941–950. doi:10.5194/angeo-28-941-2010.
Pham, V.N., Geller, R.J., 2002. Comment on “Signature of pending earthquake from electromagnetic
anomalies” by K. Eftaxias et al. Geophysical Research Letters 29 (18),
1871. doi:10.1029/2002GL015328.
Prattes,G., Schwingenschuh,K., Eichelberger,H.U.,Magnes,W., Boudjada,M., Stachel,M.,Vellante,
M., Villante, U.,Wesztergom, V., Nenovski, P., 2011. Ultra LowFrequency (ULF) European
multi station magnetic field analysis before and during the 2009 earthquake at
L'Aquila regarding regional geotechnical information. Natural Hazards and Earth System
Sciences 11, 1959–1968. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1959-2011.
Pulinets, S.A., Boyarchuk, K.A., 2004. Ionospheric Precursors of Earthquakes. Springer,
Berlin, Germany, p. 315.
Ramos, O., Altshuler, E., Màløy, K.J., 2009. Avalanche prediction in self-organized pile of
beads. Physical Review Letters 102. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.078701.
Rozhnoi, A., Solovieva, M., Molchanov, O., Schwingenschuh, K., Boudjada, M., Biagi, P.F.,
Maggipinto, T., Castellana, L., Ermini, A., Hayakawa, M., 2009. Anomalies in VLF
radio signals prior the Abruzzo earthquake (M=6.3) on 6 April 2009. Natural Hazards
and Earth System Sciences 9, 1727–1732. doi:10.5194/nhess-9-1727-2009.
Saito, T., 1969. Geomagnetic pulsations. Space Science Reviews 10, 319–342.
doi:10.1007/BF00203620.
Smirnova, N.A., Hayakawa, M., 2007. Fractal characteristic of ground-observed ULF
emissions in relation to geomagnetic and seismic activities. Journal of Atmospheric
and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 69, 1833–1841. doi:10.1016/j.jastp. 2007.08.001.
Smirnova, N., Hayakawa, M., Gotoh, K., Volobuev, D., 2001. Scaling characteristics of the
ULF geomagnetic fields at the Guam seismoactive area and their dynamics in relation
to the earthquake. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 1, 119–126.
doi:10.5194/nhess-1-119-2001.
Stacey, F.D., 1963. Seismo-magnetic effect and the possibility of forecasting earthquakes.
Nature 200, 1083. doi:10.1038/2001083b0 Letter.
Thomas, J.N., Love, J.J., Johnston, M.J.S., 2009a. On the reported magnetic precursor of
the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquakes. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
173, 207–215. doi:10.1016/j.pepi.2008.11.014.
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