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Gas seepage from Tokamachi mud volcanoes, onshore Niigata Basin (Japan): Origin, post-genetic alterations and CH4–CO2 fluxes
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
4.5. Studi sul degassamento naturale e sui gas petroliferi
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
3/26 (2011)
Publisher
Elsevier
Pages (printed)
348-359
Issued date
March 2011
Abstract
Methane and CO2 emissions from the two most active mud volcanoes in central Japan, Murono and Kamou (Tokamachi City, Niigata Basin), were measured in from both craters or vents (macro-seepage) and invisible exhalation from the soil (mini- and microseepage). Molecular and isotopic compositions of the released gases were also determined. Gas is thermogenic (d13CCH4 from 32.9‰ to 36.2‰), likely associated with oil, and enrichments of 13C in CO2 (d13CCO2 up to +28.3‰) and propane (d13CC3H8 up to
8.6‰) suggest subsurface petroleum biodegradation. Gas source and post-genetic alteration processes did not change from 2004 to 2010. Methane flux ranged within the orders of magnitude of 101–104 gmˉ2 dˉ1 in macro-seeps, and up to 446 g mˉ2 dˉ1 from diffuse seepage. Positive CH4 fluxes from
dry soil were widespread throughout the investigated areas. Total CH4 emission from Murono and Kamou were estimated to be at least 20 and 3.7 ton aˉ1, respectively, of which more than half was from invisible
seepage surrounding the mud volcano vents. At the macro-seeps, CO2 fluxes were directly proportional to CH4 fluxes, and the volumetric ratios between CH4 flux and CO2 flux were similar to the compositional
CH4/CO2 volume ratio. Macro-seep flux data, in addition to those of other 13 mud volcanoes, supported the hypothesis that molecular fractionation (increase of the ‘‘Bernard ratio’’ C1/(C2 + C3)) is inversely proportional to gas migration fluxes. The CH4 ‘‘emission factor’’ (total measured output divided by investigated
seepage area) was similar to that derived in other mud volcanoes of the same size and activity.
The updated global ‘‘emission-factor’’ data-set, now including 27 mud volcanoes from different countries, suggests that previous estimates of global CH4 emission from mud volcanoes may be significantly
underestimated.
8.6‰) suggest subsurface petroleum biodegradation. Gas source and post-genetic alteration processes did not change from 2004 to 2010. Methane flux ranged within the orders of magnitude of 101–104 gmˉ2 dˉ1 in macro-seeps, and up to 446 g mˉ2 dˉ1 from diffuse seepage. Positive CH4 fluxes from
dry soil were widespread throughout the investigated areas. Total CH4 emission from Murono and Kamou were estimated to be at least 20 and 3.7 ton aˉ1, respectively, of which more than half was from invisible
seepage surrounding the mud volcano vents. At the macro-seeps, CO2 fluxes were directly proportional to CH4 fluxes, and the volumetric ratios between CH4 flux and CO2 flux were similar to the compositional
CH4/CO2 volume ratio. Macro-seep flux data, in addition to those of other 13 mud volcanoes, supported the hypothesis that molecular fractionation (increase of the ‘‘Bernard ratio’’ C1/(C2 + C3)) is inversely proportional to gas migration fluxes. The CH4 ‘‘emission factor’’ (total measured output divided by investigated
seepage area) was similar to that derived in other mud volcanoes of the same size and activity.
The updated global ‘‘emission-factor’’ data-set, now including 27 mud volcanoes from different countries, suggests that previous estimates of global CH4 emission from mud volcanoes may be significantly
underestimated.
References
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C., Prinzhofer, A., 2003. Mud volcanism origin and processes. New insights from
Trinidad and the Barbados Prism. In: Van Rensbergen, P., Hillis, R.R., Maltman,
A.J., Morley, C. (Eds.), Surface Sediment Mobilization. Geological Society,
London. Special Publication 216, pp. 475–490.
Dimitrov, L., 2002. Mud volcanoes – the most important pathway for degassing
deeply buried sediments. Earth-Sci. Rev. 59, 49–76.
Dimitrov, L., 2003. Mud volcanoes—a significant source of atmospheric methane.
Geo-Mar. Lett. 23, 155–161.
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23924.
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Atmos. Environ. 43, 1430–1443.
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Methane and Climate Change. Earthscan, London (Chapter 4).
Etiope, G., Klusman, R.W., 2010. Microseepage in drylands: flux and implications in
the global atmospheric source/sink budget of methane. Global Planet. Change
72, 265–274.
Etiope, G., Milkov, A.V., 2004. A new estimate of global methane flux from onshore
and shallow submarine mud volcanoes to the atmosphere. Environ. Geol. 46,
997–1002.
Etiope, G., Baciu, C., Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., Cosma, C., 2004a. Gas flux
to the atmosphere from mud volcanoes in Eastern Romania. Terra Nova 16,
179–184.
Etiope, G., Caracausi, A., Favara, R., Italiano, F., Baciu, C., 2002. Methane emission
from the mud volcanoes of Sicily (Italy). Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 8. doi:10.1029/
2001GL014340.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Baciu, C.L., 2009a. Terrestrial methane seeps and mud
volcanoes: a global perspective of gas origin. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 26, 333–344.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Baciu, C., Milkov, A.V., 2004b. Methane emission from
mud volcanoes in eastern Azerbaijan. Geology 32, 465–468.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Milkov, A.V., Waseda, A., Mizobe, K., Sun, C.H., 2009b.
Evidence of subsurface anaerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons and potential
secondary methanogenesis in terrestrial mud volcanoes. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 26,
1692–1703.
Etiope, G., Fridriksson, T., Italiano, F., Winiwarter, W., Theloke, J., 2007a. Natural
emissions of methane from geothermal and volcanic sources in Europe. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 165, 76–86.
Etiope, G., Lassey, K.R., Klusman, R.W., Boschi, E., 2008. Reappraisal of the fossil
methane budget and related emission from geologic sources. Geophys. Res. Lett.
35, L09307. doi:10.1029/2008GL033623.
Etiope, G., Martinelli, G., Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., 2007b. Methane seeps and mud
volcanoes in Italy: gas origin, fractionation and emission to the atmosphere.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 34. doi:10.1029/2007GL030341.
Etiope, G., Zwahlen, C., Anselmetti, F.S., Kupfer, R., Schubert, C.J., 2010. Origin and
flux of a gas seep in the Northern Alps (Giswil, Switzerland). Geofluids 10, 476–
485.
Guliyev, I.S., Feizullayev, A.A., 1997. All About Mud Volcanoes. Baku Pub.House,
NAFTA-Press.
Hong, W.L., Yang, T.F., 2007. Methane flux from accretionary prism through mud
volcano area in Taiwan – from present to the past. In: Proceedings of 9th
International Conference on Gas Geochemistry, October 1–8, 2007, National
Taiwan University, pp. 80–81.
Hunt, J.M., 1996. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H. Freeman and Co., New
York.
Ishihara, T., Tanaka, K., 2009. Geological structure and groundwater geochemistry
around mud volcanoes in the Kamou area, Tokamachi city, Niigata Prefecture. J.
Geogr. 118, 350–372 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Kato, S., Waseda, A., Nishita, H., Iwano, H., 2009. Geochemistry of crude oils and
gases from mud volcanoes and their vicinities in the Higashi-Kubiki area,
Niigata Prefecture. J. Geogr. 118, 455–471 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Kikvadze, O., Lavrushin, V., Pokrovskii, B., Polyak, B., 2010. Gases from mud
volcanoes of western and central Caucasus. Geofluids 10, 486–496.
Kiyosu, Y., Yoshida, Y., 1988. Origin of some natural gases from Takinoue
geothermal area in Japan. Geochem. J. 22, 183–193.
Kopf, A., Delisle, G., Faber, E., Panahi, B., Aliyev, C.S., Guliyev, I., 2009. Long-term
in situ monitoring at Dashgil mud volcano, Azerbaijan: a link between
seismicity, pore-pressure transients and methane emission. Int. J. Earth Sci.
99, 227–240. and Erratum 99, 241.
Matsushita, Y., Mizoguchi, K., Ohira, T., Doi, N., Ohtsuka, M., 2000. The geological
characteristics and the construction methods of heavy sqeezing mudrock at the
Nabetachiyama tunnel. Proceedings of 8th International Congress Rock
Mechanics, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 491–495.
Milkov, A.V., 2005. Global distribution of mud volcanoes and their significance in
petroleum exploration, as a source of methane in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere, and as geohazard. In: Martinelli, G., Panahi, B. (Eds.), Mud
Volcanoes, Geodynamics and Seismicity. IV Earth and Environmental Sciences,
51, 77–87. NATO Science Series, Springer, pp. 29–34.Milkov, A.V., 2010. Methanogenic biodegradation of petroleum in the West Siberian
Basin (Russia): significance for formation of giant Cenomanian gas pools. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 94, 1485–1541.
Mizobe, K., 2007. Geochemical Characteristics of Natural Gases from Mud Volcanoes
in Tokamachi City, Niigata Prefecture. Master Thesis, Graduate School of Science
and Engineering, Yamaguchi University.
Moriizumi, J., Liu, W., Kawai, S., Yamazawa, H., Iida, T., 2007. 14CO2 emission from
the ground surface in a Japanese forest. In: International Symposium on
Radiometric Dating Studies – Frontier of Technical development and
Application of CHIME and AMS 14C Dating Methods, 15–17 January 2007,
Nagoya University, Japan.
Morner, N.A., Etiope, G., 2002. Carbon degassing from the lithosphere. Global Planet.
Change 33, 185–203.
Onishi, K., Sanada, Y., Yokota, T., Tokunaga, T., Mogi, K., Safani, J., O’Neill, A., 2009.
Investigation of subsurface S-wave velocity structures beneath a mud volcano
in the Matsudai–Murono District by surface wave method. J. Geogr. 118, 390–
407 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Pallasser, R.J., 2000. Recognising biodegradation in gas/oil accumulations through
the d13C compositions of gas components. Org. Geochem. 31, 1363–1373.
Rhakmanov, R.R., 1987. Mud Volcanoes and Their Importance in Forecasting of
Subsurface Petroleum Potential. Nedra, Moscow (in Russian).
Schoell, M., 1983. Genetic characterization of natural gases. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Bull. 67, 2225–2238.
Shinya, T., Tanaka, K., 2005. Mud volcanoes in Matsudai, Tokamachi city, Niigata
Prefecture. J. Japan Soc. Natural Disaster Sci. 24, 49–58 (in Japanese with English
abstract).
Spulber, L., Etiope, G., Baciu, C., Malos, C., Vlad, S.N., 2010. Methane emission from
natural gas seeps and mud volcanoes in Transylvania (Romania). Geofluids 10,
463–475.Stadnitskaia, A., Ivanov, M.K., Poludetkina, E.N., Kreulen, R., van Weering, T.C.E.,
2008. Sources of hydrocarbon gases in mud volcanoes from the Sorokin Trough,
NE Black Sea, based on molecular and carbon isotopic compositions. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 25, 1040–1057.
Sun, C.H., Chang, S.C., Kuo, C.L., Wu, J.C., Shao, P.H., Oung, J.N., 2010. Origins of
Taiwan’s mud volcanoes: evidence from geochemistry. J. Asian Earth Sci. 37,
105–116.
Suzuki, K., Tokuyasu, S., Tanaka, K., 2009. Undergound structure of mud volcanoes
in Tokamachi city, Niigata Prefecture determined by electromagnetic
exploration, and geographical and geological surveys. J. Geogr. 118, 373–389
(in Japanese with English abstract).
Takeuchi, K., Yoshikawa, T., Kamai, T., 2000. Geology of the Matsunoyama onsen
district with geological map at 1:50,000. Geol. Surv. Japan (in Japanese with
English abstract).
Tomaru, H., Lu, Z., Fehn, U., Muramatsu, Y., 2009. Origin of hydrocarbons in the
Green Tuff region of Japan: 129I results from oil field brines and hot springs in
the Akita and Niigata Basins. Chem. Geol. 264, 221–231.
Urabe, A., Tominaga, T., Nakamura, Y., Wakita, H., 1985. Chemical composition of
natural gases in Japan. Geochem. J. 19, 11–25.
Waseda, A., Iwano, H., 2008. Characterization of natural gases in Japan
based on molecular and carbon isotope compositions. Geofluids 8, 286–
292.
Xu, H.L., Shen, J.W., Zhou, X.W., 2006. Geochemistry of geopressured
hydrothermal waters in the Niigata sedimentary basin, Japan. Island Arc 15,
199–209.
Yang, T.F., Yeh, G.H., Fu, C.C., Wang, C.C., Lan, T.F., Lee, H.F., Chen, C-H., Walia, V.,
Sung, Q.C., 2004. Composition and exhalation flux of gases from mud volcanoes
in Taiwan. Environ. Geol. 46, 1003–1011.
deep subsurface reservoirs. Nature 431, 291–294.
Bernard, B.B., Brooks, J.M., Sackett, W.M., 1978. Light hydrocarbons in recent Texas
continental shelf and slope sediments. J. Geophys. Res. 83, 4053–4061.
Berner, U., Faber, E., 1996. Empirical carbon isotope/maturity relationships for gases
from algal kerogens and terrigenous organic matter, based on dry, open-system
pyrolysis. Org. Geochem. 24, 947–955.
Brown, A., in press. Identification of source carbon for microbial methane in
unconventional gas reservoirs. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull.Chang, H.C., Sung, Q.C., Chen, L., 2010. Estimation of the methane flux from mud
volcanoes along Chishan Fault, southwestern Taiwan. Environ. Earth Sci. 61,
963–972.
Chao, H.C., You, C.F., Sun, C.H., 2010. Gases in Taiwan mud volcanoes: chemical
composition, methane carbon isotopes, and gas fluxes. Appl. Geochem. 25, 428–
436.
Deville, E., Battani, A., Griboulard, R., Guerlais, S.H., Herbin, J.P., Houzay, J.P., Muller,
C., Prinzhofer, A., 2003. Mud volcanism origin and processes. New insights from
Trinidad and the Barbados Prism. In: Van Rensbergen, P., Hillis, R.R., Maltman,
A.J., Morley, C. (Eds.), Surface Sediment Mobilization. Geological Society,
London. Special Publication 216, pp. 475–490.
Dimitrov, L., 2002. Mud volcanoes – the most important pathway for degassing
deeply buried sediments. Earth-Sci. Rev. 59, 49–76.
Dimitrov, L., 2003. Mud volcanoes—a significant source of atmospheric methane.
Geo-Mar. Lett. 23, 155–161.
EMEP/EEA, 2009. EMEP/EEA Air Pollutant Emission Inventory Guidebook – 2009.
Technical Guidance to Prepare National Emission Inventories. EEA Technical
Report No. 6/2009. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, 10.2800/
23924.
Etiope, G., 2009. Natural emissions of methane from geological seepage in Europe.
Atmos. Environ. 43, 1430–1443.
Etiope, G., 2010. Geological methane. In: Reay, D., Smith, P., van Amstel, A. (Eds.),
Methane and Climate Change. Earthscan, London (Chapter 4).
Etiope, G., Klusman, R.W., 2010. Microseepage in drylands: flux and implications in
the global atmospheric source/sink budget of methane. Global Planet. Change
72, 265–274.
Etiope, G., Milkov, A.V., 2004. A new estimate of global methane flux from onshore
and shallow submarine mud volcanoes to the atmosphere. Environ. Geol. 46,
997–1002.
Etiope, G., Baciu, C., Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., Cosma, C., 2004a. Gas flux
to the atmosphere from mud volcanoes in Eastern Romania. Terra Nova 16,
179–184.
Etiope, G., Caracausi, A., Favara, R., Italiano, F., Baciu, C., 2002. Methane emission
from the mud volcanoes of Sicily (Italy). Geophys. Res. Lett. 29, 8. doi:10.1029/
2001GL014340.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Baciu, C.L., 2009a. Terrestrial methane seeps and mud
volcanoes: a global perspective of gas origin. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 26, 333–344.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Baciu, C., Milkov, A.V., 2004b. Methane emission from
mud volcanoes in eastern Azerbaijan. Geology 32, 465–468.
Etiope, G., Feyzullayev, A., Milkov, A.V., Waseda, A., Mizobe, K., Sun, C.H., 2009b.
Evidence of subsurface anaerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons and potential
secondary methanogenesis in terrestrial mud volcanoes. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 26,
1692–1703.
Etiope, G., Fridriksson, T., Italiano, F., Winiwarter, W., Theloke, J., 2007a. Natural
emissions of methane from geothermal and volcanic sources in Europe. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 165, 76–86.
Etiope, G., Lassey, K.R., Klusman, R.W., Boschi, E., 2008. Reappraisal of the fossil
methane budget and related emission from geologic sources. Geophys. Res. Lett.
35, L09307. doi:10.1029/2008GL033623.
Etiope, G., Martinelli, G., Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., 2007b. Methane seeps and mud
volcanoes in Italy: gas origin, fractionation and emission to the atmosphere.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 34. doi:10.1029/2007GL030341.
Etiope, G., Zwahlen, C., Anselmetti, F.S., Kupfer, R., Schubert, C.J., 2010. Origin and
flux of a gas seep in the Northern Alps (Giswil, Switzerland). Geofluids 10, 476–
485.
Guliyev, I.S., Feizullayev, A.A., 1997. All About Mud Volcanoes. Baku Pub.House,
NAFTA-Press.
Hong, W.L., Yang, T.F., 2007. Methane flux from accretionary prism through mud
volcano area in Taiwan – from present to the past. In: Proceedings of 9th
International Conference on Gas Geochemistry, October 1–8, 2007, National
Taiwan University, pp. 80–81.
Hunt, J.M., 1996. Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. W.H. Freeman and Co., New
York.
Ishihara, T., Tanaka, K., 2009. Geological structure and groundwater geochemistry
around mud volcanoes in the Kamou area, Tokamachi city, Niigata Prefecture. J.
Geogr. 118, 350–372 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Kato, S., Waseda, A., Nishita, H., Iwano, H., 2009. Geochemistry of crude oils and
gases from mud volcanoes and their vicinities in the Higashi-Kubiki area,
Niigata Prefecture. J. Geogr. 118, 455–471 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Kikvadze, O., Lavrushin, V., Pokrovskii, B., Polyak, B., 2010. Gases from mud
volcanoes of western and central Caucasus. Geofluids 10, 486–496.
Kiyosu, Y., Yoshida, Y., 1988. Origin of some natural gases from Takinoue
geothermal area in Japan. Geochem. J. 22, 183–193.
Kopf, A., Delisle, G., Faber, E., Panahi, B., Aliyev, C.S., Guliyev, I., 2009. Long-term
in situ monitoring at Dashgil mud volcano, Azerbaijan: a link between
seismicity, pore-pressure transients and methane emission. Int. J. Earth Sci.
99, 227–240. and Erratum 99, 241.
Matsushita, Y., Mizoguchi, K., Ohira, T., Doi, N., Ohtsuka, M., 2000. The geological
characteristics and the construction methods of heavy sqeezing mudrock at the
Nabetachiyama tunnel. Proceedings of 8th International Congress Rock
Mechanics, Tokyo, Japan, pp. 491–495.
Milkov, A.V., 2005. Global distribution of mud volcanoes and their significance in
petroleum exploration, as a source of methane in the atmosphere and
hydrosphere, and as geohazard. In: Martinelli, G., Panahi, B. (Eds.), Mud
Volcanoes, Geodynamics and Seismicity. IV Earth and Environmental Sciences,
51, 77–87. NATO Science Series, Springer, pp. 29–34.Milkov, A.V., 2010. Methanogenic biodegradation of petroleum in the West Siberian
Basin (Russia): significance for formation of giant Cenomanian gas pools. Am.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 94, 1485–1541.
Mizobe, K., 2007. Geochemical Characteristics of Natural Gases from Mud Volcanoes
in Tokamachi City, Niigata Prefecture. Master Thesis, Graduate School of Science
and Engineering, Yamaguchi University.
Moriizumi, J., Liu, W., Kawai, S., Yamazawa, H., Iida, T., 2007. 14CO2 emission from
the ground surface in a Japanese forest. In: International Symposium on
Radiometric Dating Studies – Frontier of Technical development and
Application of CHIME and AMS 14C Dating Methods, 15–17 January 2007,
Nagoya University, Japan.
Morner, N.A., Etiope, G., 2002. Carbon degassing from the lithosphere. Global Planet.
Change 33, 185–203.
Onishi, K., Sanada, Y., Yokota, T., Tokunaga, T., Mogi, K., Safani, J., O’Neill, A., 2009.
Investigation of subsurface S-wave velocity structures beneath a mud volcano
in the Matsudai–Murono District by surface wave method. J. Geogr. 118, 390–
407 (in Japanese with English abstract).
Pallasser, R.J., 2000. Recognising biodegradation in gas/oil accumulations through
the d13C compositions of gas components. Org. Geochem. 31, 1363–1373.
Rhakmanov, R.R., 1987. Mud Volcanoes and Their Importance in Forecasting of
Subsurface Petroleum Potential. Nedra, Moscow (in Russian).
Schoell, M., 1983. Genetic characterization of natural gases. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol.
Bull. 67, 2225–2238.
Shinya, T., Tanaka, K., 2005. Mud volcanoes in Matsudai, Tokamachi city, Niigata
Prefecture. J. Japan Soc. Natural Disaster Sci. 24, 49–58 (in Japanese with English
abstract).
Spulber, L., Etiope, G., Baciu, C., Malos, C., Vlad, S.N., 2010. Methane emission from
natural gas seeps and mud volcanoes in Transylvania (Romania). Geofluids 10,
463–475.Stadnitskaia, A., Ivanov, M.K., Poludetkina, E.N., Kreulen, R., van Weering, T.C.E.,
2008. Sources of hydrocarbon gases in mud volcanoes from the Sorokin Trough,
NE Black Sea, based on molecular and carbon isotopic compositions. Mar. Petrol.
Geol. 25, 1040–1057.
Sun, C.H., Chang, S.C., Kuo, C.L., Wu, J.C., Shao, P.H., Oung, J.N., 2010. Origins of
Taiwan’s mud volcanoes: evidence from geochemistry. J. Asian Earth Sci. 37,
105–116.
Suzuki, K., Tokuyasu, S., Tanaka, K., 2009. Undergound structure of mud volcanoes
in Tokamachi city, Niigata Prefecture determined by electromagnetic
exploration, and geographical and geological surveys. J. Geogr. 118, 373–389
(in Japanese with English abstract).
Takeuchi, K., Yoshikawa, T., Kamai, T., 2000. Geology of the Matsunoyama onsen
district with geological map at 1:50,000. Geol. Surv. Japan (in Japanese with
English abstract).
Tomaru, H., Lu, Z., Fehn, U., Muramatsu, Y., 2009. Origin of hydrocarbons in the
Green Tuff region of Japan: 129I results from oil field brines and hot springs in
the Akita and Niigata Basins. Chem. Geol. 264, 221–231.
Urabe, A., Tominaga, T., Nakamura, Y., Wakita, H., 1985. Chemical composition of
natural gases in Japan. Geochem. J. 19, 11–25.
Waseda, A., Iwano, H., 2008. Characterization of natural gases in Japan
based on molecular and carbon isotope compositions. Geofluids 8, 286–
292.
Xu, H.L., Shen, J.W., Zhou, X.W., 2006. Geochemistry of geopressured
hydrothermal waters in the Niigata sedimentary basin, Japan. Island Arc 15,
199–209.
Yang, T.F., Yeh, G.H., Fu, C.C., Wang, C.C., Lan, T.F., Lee, H.F., Chen, C-H., Walia, V.,
Sung, Q.C., 2004. Composition and exhalation flux of gases from mud volcanoes
in Taiwan. Environ. Geol. 46, 1003–1011.
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