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CO2 Degassing and Energy Release at Solfatara Volcano, Campi Flegrei, Italy
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
1.2. TTC - Sorveglianza geochimica delle aree vulcaniche attive
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
b8/106 (2001)
Publisher
America Geophysical Union
Pages (printed)
16213-16221
Issued date
2001
Abstract
In the present period of quiescence, the Solfatara volcano, 1 km far from Pozzuoli,
releases 1500 t d-1 of hydrothermal CO2 through soil diffuse degassing from a relatively small
area (0.5 km2). This amount of gas is comparable to that released by crater plume emissions of many active volcanoes. On the basis of the CO2/H2O ratio measured in high-temperature fumaroles inside the degassing area, we computed a total thermal energy flux of 1.19X1E+13 J d-1 (138 MW). Most of this energy is lost by shallow steam condensation and transferred to
the atmosphere through the hot soil of the degassing area. The thermal energy released by diffuse degassing at Solfatara is by far the main way of energy release from the whole Campi Flegrei caldera. It is 1 order of magnitude higher than the conductive heat flux through the entire caldera, and, during the last 20 years, it was several times higher than the energy associated with seismic crises and ground deformation events. It is possible that changes in
the energy flux from a magma body seated underneath Solfatara andlor argillification
processes at relatively shallow depths determine pressurization events in the hydrothermal system and consequenly ground deformation and shallow seismic swarms, as recorded during the recent episodes of volcanic unrest centered at Pozzuoli.
releases 1500 t d-1 of hydrothermal CO2 through soil diffuse degassing from a relatively small
area (0.5 km2). This amount of gas is comparable to that released by crater plume emissions of many active volcanoes. On the basis of the CO2/H2O ratio measured in high-temperature fumaroles inside the degassing area, we computed a total thermal energy flux of 1.19X1E+13 J d-1 (138 MW). Most of this energy is lost by shallow steam condensation and transferred to
the atmosphere through the hot soil of the degassing area. The thermal energy released by diffuse degassing at Solfatara is by far the main way of energy release from the whole Campi Flegrei caldera. It is 1 order of magnitude higher than the conductive heat flux through the entire caldera, and, during the last 20 years, it was several times higher than the energy associated with seismic crises and ground deformation events. It is possible that changes in
the energy flux from a magma body seated underneath Solfatara andlor argillification
processes at relatively shallow depths determine pressurization events in the hydrothermal system and consequenly ground deformation and shallow seismic swarms, as recorded during the recent episodes of volcanic unrest centered at Pozzuoli.
References
Allard, P., Global emission of helium-3 by subaerial volcanism,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1479-1481, 1992. (Correction, Geophys.
Res. k t t . , 19, 2103, 1992.)
Allard, P., et al., Eruptive and diffusive emissions of COz from Mt.
tna, Nature, 351,387-391, 1991a.
Allard, P., A. Maiorani, D. Tedesco, G. Cortecci, and B. Turi,
Isotopic study of the origin of sulfur and carbon in Solfatara
fumaroles, Carnpi Flegri caldera, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48,
139-159, 1991b.
Anderson, G.M., and D.A. Crerar, Thermodynamics in Geochemistry.
The Equilibrium Model, 588 pp., Oxford Univ. Press, New York,
1993.
Barberi, F., G. Corrado, F. Innocenti, and G. Luongo, Phlegraean
Fields 1982-1984: Brief chronicle of a volcano emergency in a
densely populated area, Bull. Volcanol., 47, 175-185, 1984.
Barin, I., and 0. Knacke, 7hermochemical Properties of inorganic
Substances, 921 pp., Springer-Verlag. New York, 1973.
Baubron, J.C., P. Allard, and J.P. Toutain, Diffuse volcanic emissions
of carbon dioxide from Vulcano Island, Italy, Nature, 344, 51-53,
1990.
Bianco, F., M. Castellano, and G. Ventusa, Structural and
seismological features of the 1989 syn-eruptive NNW-SSE
fractures system at Mt. Etna, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1545-1548,
1998.
Bonafede, M., and M. Mazzanti, Modelling gravity variations
consistent with ground deformation in the Campi Flegrei caldera
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 81, 137-157, 1998.
Brantley, S.L., and K.W. Koepenick, Measured carbon dioxide
emissions from Oloinyo Lengai and skewed distribution of
passive volcanic fluxes, Geology, 23, 933-936, 1995.
Brombach, T., Fluid Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Systems in
Volcanic Island Arcs: Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles) and Nisyros
(Greece), Ph.D. thesis., Univ. de Lausanne, Lausanne,
Switzerland, 2000.
Brombach, T., J.C. Hunziker, G. Chiodini, C. Cardellini and L.
Marini, Soil diffuse degassing and thermal energy fluxes from the
southern Lakki plain, Nisyros (Greece), Geophys. Res. Lett., 28,
69-72, 2001.
Brown, G., H. Rymer, J. Dowden, P. Kapadia, D. Stevenson, J.
Baquero, and L.D. Morales, Energy budget analysis for Poks
crater lake: Implications for predicting volcanic activity, Nature,
339, 370-373, 1989.
Caputo, R., Evolution of orthogonal sets of coeval extension joints,
Terra Nova, 7,479-490, 1995.
Chiodini, G., and L. Marini, Hydrothermal gas equilibria: The HzOH2-
CO2-CO-CK system, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 2637-
2687, 1998.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, M. Guidi, L. Marini, B. Raco, and G.
Taddeucci, Gas geobarometry in boiling hydrothermal systems: A
possible tool to evaluate the hazard of hydrothermal explosions.
Acta Vulcanol., 2,99-107, 1992.
Chiodini, G., F. Frondini, and B. Raco, Diffuse emission of CO
from the Fossa crater, Vulcano Island, Bull. Volcanol., 58, 41-54
1996a.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, G. Magro, L. Marini, C. Panichi, B. Raco, and
M. Russo, Chemical and isotopic variations of Bocca Grande
fumarole (Solfatara volcano, Phlegrean Fields), Acta Vulcanol., 8,
228, 1996b.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, M. Guidi, L. Marini, and B. Raco, Soil C02
flux measurements in volcanic and geothermal areas, Appl.
Geochem., 13,543-552, 1998.
Cioni, R., E. Corazza, and L. Marini, The gaslsteam ratio as indicator
of heat transfer at the Solfatara fumaroles, Phlegraean Fields
(Italy), Bull. Volcanol., 47, 295-302, 1984.
Cioni, R., E. Corazza, M. Fratta, M. Guidi, G. Magro, and L. Marini,
Geochemical precursors at Solfatara Volcano, Pozzuoli (Italy), in
lAVCE1 Proceedings in Volcanology 1, Volcanic Hazards, edited
by J.H. Latter, pp. 384-398, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989.
Clauses, C., and E. Huenges, Thermal conductivity of rocks and
minerals, in Rock Physics and Phase Relations: A Handbook of
Physical Constant, AGU Ref: Shelf Ser., vol. 3, edited by T.J.
Ahrens, pp. 105-126, AGU Washlngton, D.C., 1995.
Corrado, G., S. De Lorenzo, F. Mongelli, A. Tramacere, and G. Zito,
Surface heat flow density at the Phlegraean Fields Caldera
(Southern Italy), Geothermics, 27,469-484, 1998.
Cortecci, G., P. Noto, and C. Panichi, Environmental isotopic study
of the Campi Flegrei (Naples, Italy) geothermal field, J. Hydrol.,
36, 143.159, 1978.
David, M., Geostatistical Ore Estimation (Development in
Geomathematics 2), 363 pp., Elsevier Sci., New York, 1977.
Dvorak, J.J., and P. Gasparini, History of earthquakes and vertical
ground movements in Campi Flegrei caldera, Southern Italy:
Comparison of precursory events to the A.D. 1538 eruption of
Monte Nuovo and of activity since 1968, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 48,77-92,1991.
Farrar, C.D., M.L. Sorey, W.C. Evans, J.F. Howle, B.D. Kerr, B.M.
Kennedy, C.Y. King, and J.R. Southon, Forest-killing diffuse CO2
emission at Mammoth Mountain as a sign of magmatic unrest,
Nature, 376,675-678, 1995.
Hancock P.L., Brittle microtectonics: Principles and pratice, J. Struct.
Geol., 7,437-457, 1985.
Hancock, P.L., and T. Engelder, Neotectonic joints, Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull., 101, 1197-1208, 1989.
Hurst, A.W., H.M. Bibby, B.J. Scott, and M.J. McGuinness, The
heat source of Ruapehu Crater Lake: Deductions from the energy
and mass balances, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 46, 1-20, 199 1.
Hyppolite, J., J. Angelier, and F. Roure, A major change revealed by
Quaternry stress patterns in the Southern Apennines,
Tectonophysics, 230, 199-210, 1994.
Keenan, J.H., F.G. Keyes, P.G. Hill, and J.G. Moore, Steam Tables:
Thermodynamic Troperties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid, and
Solid Phases, 162 pp., John Wiley, New York, 1969.
Martini, M., Thermal activity and ground deformation at Phlegraean
Fields, Italy; precursor of eruptions or fluctuations of quiescent
volcanism? A contribution of geochemical studies, J. Geophys.
Res., 91, 12,255-12,260, 1986.
Martini, M., L. Gianni, A. Buccianti, F. Prati, P. Cellini Legittimo, P. Iozzelli, and B. Capaccioni, 1980 - 1990: Ten years of
geochemical investigation at Phlegrean Fields (Italy), J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 48, 161-171, 1991.
McTigue, D.F., and C.C. Mei, Gravity-induced stresses near
topography of small slope, J. Geophys. Res., 86,9268-9278, 1981.
Orsi, G., S. De Vita, and M. Di Vito, The restless, resurgent Campi
Flegrei nested caldera (Italy): Constrains on its evolution and
configuration, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 74, 179-214, 1996.
Orsi, G., L. Civetta, C. Del Gaudio, S. De Vita, M. Di Vito, R. Isaia,
S.M. Petrazzuoli, G.P. Ricciardi, and C. Ricco, Short-term
deformations and seismicity in the resurgent Campi Flegrei
caldera (Italy): An example of active block-resurgence in a
densely populated area, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 91, 415-
451, 1999.
Panichi, C., and G. Volpi, Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotope
ratios of Solfatara fumaroles (Phlegraean Fields, Italy): Further
insight into source processes, J. ~*lcanol. ~eotherm. Res., 91,
321-328, 1999.
Pasternack, G.B., and J.C. Varekamp, Volcanic lake systematics, I,
Physical constraints, Bull. Volcanol., 58,528-538, 1997.
Petit, J.P., Criteria for the sense of movement on fault surfaces in
brittle rocks, J. Struct. Geol., 9,597-608, 1987.
Rosi, M., and R. Santacroce, Volcanic hazard assessment in the
Phlegraean Fields: A contribution based on stratigraphic and
historical data, Bull. Volcanol., 47,359-370, 1984.
Rosi, M., and A. Sbrana, Phlegraean Fields (CNR Quaderni de "La
Ricerca Scientifica" 9), 175 pp., Cons. Naz. delle Ric., Rome,
Italy, 1987.
Shepherd, J.B. and, H. Sigurdsson, The Soufriere Crater Lake as a
calorimeter, Nature, 271,344-345, 1978.
Sibson, R.H., Structural permeability of fluid driven fault-fracture
mesh, J. Struct. Geol., 18, 1031-1042, 1996.
Sinclair, A.J., Selection of threshold values in geochemical data
using probability graphs, J. Geochem. Explor., 3, 129-149, 1974.
Sperner, B., L. Ratschbacher, and R. Ott, Fault-striae analysis: A
Turbo Pascal program package for graphical presentation and
reduced stress tensor calculation, Comput. Geosci., 19, 1361-
1388,1993.
Tedesco, D., Chemical and isotopic gas emissions at Campi Flegrei:
Evidence for an aborted ~eriodo f unrest, J. Geo.p h.y s. Res., 99,
15,623-15,631, 1994.
Tedesco, D., and P. Scarsi, Chemical (He, Hz, CH4, Ne, Ar, Nz) and
isoto~ic (He. Ne. Ar. C) variations at the Solfatara crater
(~oulhern'1tal~)M: ixing of'different sources in relation to seismic
activity, Earth Planet. Sci., 171,465-480, 1999.
Tedesco, D., P. Allard, Y. Sano, H. Wakita, and R. Pece, Helium-3 in
subaerial and submarine fumaroles of Campi Flegrei caldera,
Italy, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 1105-1 116, 1990.
Valentino, G.M., G. Cortecci, E. Franco, and D. Stanzione, Chemical
and isotopic composition of mineralas and waters from Campi
Flegrei volcanic system, Naples, Italy, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 91,329-344, 1999.
Vilardo, G., G. Alessio, and G. Luongo, Analysis of the magnitudefrequency
distribution for the 1983-1984 earthquake activity of
Campi Flegrei, Italy, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48, 115-125,
1991.
Williams, S. N., J. S. Schaefet, L.C. Stephen, M. L. Calvache, and D,
Lopez, Global carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere by
volcanoes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 1765-1770, 1992.
Zhang, X., and D.J. Sanderson, Numerical modelling of the effects of
fault slip on fluid flow around extensional faults, J. Struct. Geol.,
18, 109-119,1997.
Zuppetta, A., and A. Sava, Stress pattern at Campi Flegrei from focal
mechanisms of the 1982-1984 earthquakes (Southern Italy), J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48, 127-137, 1993.
Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 1479-1481, 1992. (Correction, Geophys.
Res. k t t . , 19, 2103, 1992.)
Allard, P., et al., Eruptive and diffusive emissions of COz from Mt.
tna, Nature, 351,387-391, 1991a.
Allard, P., A. Maiorani, D. Tedesco, G. Cortecci, and B. Turi,
Isotopic study of the origin of sulfur and carbon in Solfatara
fumaroles, Carnpi Flegri caldera, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48,
139-159, 1991b.
Anderson, G.M., and D.A. Crerar, Thermodynamics in Geochemistry.
The Equilibrium Model, 588 pp., Oxford Univ. Press, New York,
1993.
Barberi, F., G. Corrado, F. Innocenti, and G. Luongo, Phlegraean
Fields 1982-1984: Brief chronicle of a volcano emergency in a
densely populated area, Bull. Volcanol., 47, 175-185, 1984.
Barin, I., and 0. Knacke, 7hermochemical Properties of inorganic
Substances, 921 pp., Springer-Verlag. New York, 1973.
Baubron, J.C., P. Allard, and J.P. Toutain, Diffuse volcanic emissions
of carbon dioxide from Vulcano Island, Italy, Nature, 344, 51-53,
1990.
Bianco, F., M. Castellano, and G. Ventusa, Structural and
seismological features of the 1989 syn-eruptive NNW-SSE
fractures system at Mt. Etna, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1545-1548,
1998.
Bonafede, M., and M. Mazzanti, Modelling gravity variations
consistent with ground deformation in the Campi Flegrei caldera
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 81, 137-157, 1998.
Brantley, S.L., and K.W. Koepenick, Measured carbon dioxide
emissions from Oloinyo Lengai and skewed distribution of
passive volcanic fluxes, Geology, 23, 933-936, 1995.
Brombach, T., Fluid Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Systems in
Volcanic Island Arcs: Guadeloupe (Lesser Antilles) and Nisyros
(Greece), Ph.D. thesis., Univ. de Lausanne, Lausanne,
Switzerland, 2000.
Brombach, T., J.C. Hunziker, G. Chiodini, C. Cardellini and L.
Marini, Soil diffuse degassing and thermal energy fluxes from the
southern Lakki plain, Nisyros (Greece), Geophys. Res. Lett., 28,
69-72, 2001.
Brown, G., H. Rymer, J. Dowden, P. Kapadia, D. Stevenson, J.
Baquero, and L.D. Morales, Energy budget analysis for Poks
crater lake: Implications for predicting volcanic activity, Nature,
339, 370-373, 1989.
Caputo, R., Evolution of orthogonal sets of coeval extension joints,
Terra Nova, 7,479-490, 1995.
Chiodini, G., and L. Marini, Hydrothermal gas equilibria: The HzOH2-
CO2-CO-CK system, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 2637-
2687, 1998.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, M. Guidi, L. Marini, B. Raco, and G.
Taddeucci, Gas geobarometry in boiling hydrothermal systems: A
possible tool to evaluate the hazard of hydrothermal explosions.
Acta Vulcanol., 2,99-107, 1992.
Chiodini, G., F. Frondini, and B. Raco, Diffuse emission of CO
from the Fossa crater, Vulcano Island, Bull. Volcanol., 58, 41-54
1996a.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, G. Magro, L. Marini, C. Panichi, B. Raco, and
M. Russo, Chemical and isotopic variations of Bocca Grande
fumarole (Solfatara volcano, Phlegrean Fields), Acta Vulcanol., 8,
228, 1996b.
Chiodini, G., R. Cioni, M. Guidi, L. Marini, and B. Raco, Soil C02
flux measurements in volcanic and geothermal areas, Appl.
Geochem., 13,543-552, 1998.
Cioni, R., E. Corazza, and L. Marini, The gaslsteam ratio as indicator
of heat transfer at the Solfatara fumaroles, Phlegraean Fields
(Italy), Bull. Volcanol., 47, 295-302, 1984.
Cioni, R., E. Corazza, M. Fratta, M. Guidi, G. Magro, and L. Marini,
Geochemical precursors at Solfatara Volcano, Pozzuoli (Italy), in
lAVCE1 Proceedings in Volcanology 1, Volcanic Hazards, edited
by J.H. Latter, pp. 384-398, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989.
Clauses, C., and E. Huenges, Thermal conductivity of rocks and
minerals, in Rock Physics and Phase Relations: A Handbook of
Physical Constant, AGU Ref: Shelf Ser., vol. 3, edited by T.J.
Ahrens, pp. 105-126, AGU Washlngton, D.C., 1995.
Corrado, G., S. De Lorenzo, F. Mongelli, A. Tramacere, and G. Zito,
Surface heat flow density at the Phlegraean Fields Caldera
(Southern Italy), Geothermics, 27,469-484, 1998.
Cortecci, G., P. Noto, and C. Panichi, Environmental isotopic study
of the Campi Flegrei (Naples, Italy) geothermal field, J. Hydrol.,
36, 143.159, 1978.
David, M., Geostatistical Ore Estimation (Development in
Geomathematics 2), 363 pp., Elsevier Sci., New York, 1977.
Dvorak, J.J., and P. Gasparini, History of earthquakes and vertical
ground movements in Campi Flegrei caldera, Southern Italy:
Comparison of precursory events to the A.D. 1538 eruption of
Monte Nuovo and of activity since 1968, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 48,77-92,1991.
Farrar, C.D., M.L. Sorey, W.C. Evans, J.F. Howle, B.D. Kerr, B.M.
Kennedy, C.Y. King, and J.R. Southon, Forest-killing diffuse CO2
emission at Mammoth Mountain as a sign of magmatic unrest,
Nature, 376,675-678, 1995.
Hancock P.L., Brittle microtectonics: Principles and pratice, J. Struct.
Geol., 7,437-457, 1985.
Hancock, P.L., and T. Engelder, Neotectonic joints, Geol. Soc. Am.
Bull., 101, 1197-1208, 1989.
Hurst, A.W., H.M. Bibby, B.J. Scott, and M.J. McGuinness, The
heat source of Ruapehu Crater Lake: Deductions from the energy
and mass balances, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 46, 1-20, 199 1.
Hyppolite, J., J. Angelier, and F. Roure, A major change revealed by
Quaternry stress patterns in the Southern Apennines,
Tectonophysics, 230, 199-210, 1994.
Keenan, J.H., F.G. Keyes, P.G. Hill, and J.G. Moore, Steam Tables:
Thermodynamic Troperties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid, and
Solid Phases, 162 pp., John Wiley, New York, 1969.
Martini, M., Thermal activity and ground deformation at Phlegraean
Fields, Italy; precursor of eruptions or fluctuations of quiescent
volcanism? A contribution of geochemical studies, J. Geophys.
Res., 91, 12,255-12,260, 1986.
Martini, M., L. Gianni, A. Buccianti, F. Prati, P. Cellini Legittimo, P. Iozzelli, and B. Capaccioni, 1980 - 1990: Ten years of
geochemical investigation at Phlegrean Fields (Italy), J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 48, 161-171, 1991.
McTigue, D.F., and C.C. Mei, Gravity-induced stresses near
topography of small slope, J. Geophys. Res., 86,9268-9278, 1981.
Orsi, G., S. De Vita, and M. Di Vito, The restless, resurgent Campi
Flegrei nested caldera (Italy): Constrains on its evolution and
configuration, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 74, 179-214, 1996.
Orsi, G., L. Civetta, C. Del Gaudio, S. De Vita, M. Di Vito, R. Isaia,
S.M. Petrazzuoli, G.P. Ricciardi, and C. Ricco, Short-term
deformations and seismicity in the resurgent Campi Flegrei
caldera (Italy): An example of active block-resurgence in a
densely populated area, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 91, 415-
451, 1999.
Panichi, C., and G. Volpi, Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon isotope
ratios of Solfatara fumaroles (Phlegraean Fields, Italy): Further
insight into source processes, J. ~*lcanol. ~eotherm. Res., 91,
321-328, 1999.
Pasternack, G.B., and J.C. Varekamp, Volcanic lake systematics, I,
Physical constraints, Bull. Volcanol., 58,528-538, 1997.
Petit, J.P., Criteria for the sense of movement on fault surfaces in
brittle rocks, J. Struct. Geol., 9,597-608, 1987.
Rosi, M., and R. Santacroce, Volcanic hazard assessment in the
Phlegraean Fields: A contribution based on stratigraphic and
historical data, Bull. Volcanol., 47,359-370, 1984.
Rosi, M., and A. Sbrana, Phlegraean Fields (CNR Quaderni de "La
Ricerca Scientifica" 9), 175 pp., Cons. Naz. delle Ric., Rome,
Italy, 1987.
Shepherd, J.B. and, H. Sigurdsson, The Soufriere Crater Lake as a
calorimeter, Nature, 271,344-345, 1978.
Sibson, R.H., Structural permeability of fluid driven fault-fracture
mesh, J. Struct. Geol., 18, 1031-1042, 1996.
Sinclair, A.J., Selection of threshold values in geochemical data
using probability graphs, J. Geochem. Explor., 3, 129-149, 1974.
Sperner, B., L. Ratschbacher, and R. Ott, Fault-striae analysis: A
Turbo Pascal program package for graphical presentation and
reduced stress tensor calculation, Comput. Geosci., 19, 1361-
1388,1993.
Tedesco, D., Chemical and isotopic gas emissions at Campi Flegrei:
Evidence for an aborted ~eriodo f unrest, J. Geo.p h.y s. Res., 99,
15,623-15,631, 1994.
Tedesco, D., and P. Scarsi, Chemical (He, Hz, CH4, Ne, Ar, Nz) and
isoto~ic (He. Ne. Ar. C) variations at the Solfatara crater
(~oulhern'1tal~)M: ixing of'different sources in relation to seismic
activity, Earth Planet. Sci., 171,465-480, 1999.
Tedesco, D., P. Allard, Y. Sano, H. Wakita, and R. Pece, Helium-3 in
subaerial and submarine fumaroles of Campi Flegrei caldera,
Italy, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 1105-1 116, 1990.
Valentino, G.M., G. Cortecci, E. Franco, and D. Stanzione, Chemical
and isotopic composition of mineralas and waters from Campi
Flegrei volcanic system, Naples, Italy, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 91,329-344, 1999.
Vilardo, G., G. Alessio, and G. Luongo, Analysis of the magnitudefrequency
distribution for the 1983-1984 earthquake activity of
Campi Flegrei, Italy, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48, 115-125,
1991.
Williams, S. N., J. S. Schaefet, L.C. Stephen, M. L. Calvache, and D,
Lopez, Global carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere by
volcanoes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 1765-1770, 1992.
Zhang, X., and D.J. Sanderson, Numerical modelling of the effects of
fault slip on fluid flow around extensional faults, J. Struct. Geol.,
18, 109-119,1997.
Zuppetta, A., and A. Sava, Stress pattern at Campi Flegrei from focal
mechanisms of the 1982-1984 earthquakes (Southern Italy), J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 48, 127-137, 1993.
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