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Temporal analysis of d13C CO2 and CO2 efflux in soil gas emissions at Mt. Etna: a new tool for volcano monitoring
Author(s)
Language
English
Obiettivo Specifico
4V. Dinamica dei processi pre-eruttivi
Status
Published
JCR Journal
JCR Journal
Peer review journal
Yes
Title of the book
Issue/vol(year)
/60(2017)
Pages (printed)
S0663
Issued date
2017
Alternative Location
Subjects
Abstract
We monitored the soil gas emission of CO2 from selected
sites of Mt. Etna volcano during the period February 2009
to December 2010 by measuring periodically the soil CO2 ef-
flux together with the associated stable carbon isotope com-
position of CO2. Correlation between the two parameters
showed distinct behaviors depending on the sites as a re-
flection of the different interactions between crustal and
sub-crustal fluids. Where deep CO2 interacted with shallow
cold ground water and/or with shallow biogenic CO2, a
positive correlation between soil CO2 effluxes and carbon
isotopes was evident and it depended strongly on the veloc-
ity of gas through the soil. In these cases, the highest CO2
effluxes corresponded to δ13CCO2 values similar to those of
the deep magmatic CO2 emitted from the crater and peri-
crateric gas emissions at the summit. In areas where a shal-
low hydrothermal system was presumed, then a similar
correlation was less evident or even absent, suggesting
strong control on C isotopes arising from the interactions
between CO2 gas and dissolved HCO3- that occur in aquifers
at T>120 °C. Marked temporal variations were observed
in both parameters at all sites. No significant effect of me-
teorological parameters was found, so the observed changes
were reasonably attributed to variations in volcanic activity
of Mt. Etna. In particular, the variations were attributed
to increased degassing of CO2 from incoming new magma,
possibly coupled with increased hydrothermal activity in at
least some of the shallow aquifers of the volcano. The
largest anomalies in the monitored parameters preceded the
opening of the New Southeast Crater in late 2009 and there-
fore they could represent a key to unveiling the dynamics of
the volcano.
sites of Mt. Etna volcano during the period February 2009
to December 2010 by measuring periodically the soil CO2 ef-
flux together with the associated stable carbon isotope com-
position of CO2. Correlation between the two parameters
showed distinct behaviors depending on the sites as a re-
flection of the different interactions between crustal and
sub-crustal fluids. Where deep CO2 interacted with shallow
cold ground water and/or with shallow biogenic CO2, a
positive correlation between soil CO2 effluxes and carbon
isotopes was evident and it depended strongly on the veloc-
ity of gas through the soil. In these cases, the highest CO2
effluxes corresponded to δ13CCO2 values similar to those of
the deep magmatic CO2 emitted from the crater and peri-
crateric gas emissions at the summit. In areas where a shal-
low hydrothermal system was presumed, then a similar
correlation was less evident or even absent, suggesting
strong control on C isotopes arising from the interactions
between CO2 gas and dissolved HCO3- that occur in aquifers
at T>120 °C. Marked temporal variations were observed
in both parameters at all sites. No significant effect of me-
teorological parameters was found, so the observed changes
were reasonably attributed to variations in volcanic activity
of Mt. Etna. In particular, the variations were attributed
to increased degassing of CO2 from incoming new magma,
possibly coupled with increased hydrothermal activity in at
least some of the shallow aquifers of the volcano. The
largest anomalies in the monitored parameters preceded the
opening of the New Southeast Crater in late 2009 and there-
fore they could represent a key to unveiling the dynamics of
the volcano.
Sponsors
Slovenian Re-
search Programme “Cycling of substances in the environment, mass
balances, modelling of environmental processes and risk assessment”
(P1-0143) and bilateral Slovenian-Italian Cooperation “Mercury emis
sions, its influence and correlation with Rn on Etna area”.
search Programme “Cycling of substances in the environment, mass
balances, modelling of environmental processes and risk assessment”
(P1-0143) and bilateral Slovenian-Italian Cooperation “Mercury emis
sions, its influence and correlation with Rn on Etna area”.
References
Aiuppa, A., Allard, P., D’Alessandro, W., Giammanco,
S., Parello, F., and M. Valenza (2004). Magmatic gas
leakage at Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy): relationships
with the volcano-tectonic structures, the hydrolog-
ical pattern and the eruptive activity, in Mt. Etna:
Volcano Laboratory, A.G.u. Geophysical Mono-
graph Series 143, 129-145, doi: 10.1029/143GM09.
Allard, A., Jean-Baptiste, P., D’alessandro, W., Parello, F.,
Parisi, B., and C. Flehoc (1997). Mantle-derived he-
lium and carbon in groundwaters and gases of Mount
Etna, Italy, Earth Planet, Sci. Let., 148, 501-516.
Anzà, S., Dongarrà, G., Giammanco, S., Gottini, V.,
Hauser, S. and M. Valenza (1989). Geochimica dei flu-
idi dell'Etna: Le acque sotterranee, Miner. Petrogr.
Acta, 32, 231-251 (in Italian).
Ahrens, L.H. (1954). The lognormal distribution of the
elements (A fundamental law of geochemistry and
its subsidiary). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 5, 49-73.
Aureli, A. (1973). Idrogeologia del fianco occidentale
etneo, proc. 2nd Int.l Congress on underground Wa-
ters, Palermo, Italy, 425-487 (in Italian).
Behncke, B., Branca, S., Corsaro, R.A., De Beni, E.,
Miraglia, L. and C. Proietti (2014). The 2011-2012
summit activity of Mount Etna: birth, growth
and products of the new SE crater. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 270, 10-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2013.11.012.
De Beni, E., Behncke, B., Branca, S., Nicolosi, I., Carluc-
cio, R., D'Ajello Caracciolo, F. and M. Chiappini
(2015). The continuing story of Etna's New South-
east Crater (2012-2014): Evolution and volume cal-
culations based on field surveys and
aerophotogrammetry. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
303, 175-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeo-
res.2015.07.021.
Bonaccorso, A., Bonforte, A., Calvari, S., Del Negro, C.,
Di Grazia, G., Ganci, G., Neri, M., Vicari, A. and E.
Boschi (2011). The initial phases of the 2008-2009
Mount Etna eruption: A multidisciplinary approach
for hazard assessment. J. Geophys. Res., 116, B03203,
doi:10.1029/2010JB007906.
Bonfanti, P., D'Alessandro, W., Dongarrà, G., Parello, F.
and M. Valenza (1996). Medium-term anomalies in
groundwater temperature before 1991-1993 Mt. Etna
Eruption, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 73, 303-308.
Bruno N, Caltabiano T, Giammanco S and R. Romano
(2001). Degassing of SO2 and CO2 at Mount Etna
(Sicily) as an indicator of pre-eruptive ascent and shal-
low emplacement of magma, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 110, 137-153.
Brusca, L., Aiuppa, A., D’alessandro, W., Parello, F., Al-
lard, P., and A. Michel (2001). Geochemical mapping
of magmatic gas-water-rock interactions in the
aquifer of Mount Etna volcano, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 108, 199-218.
Caracausi, A., Favara, R., Giammanco, S., Italiano, F.,
Nuccio, P.M., Paonita, A., Pecoraino, G. and A. Rizzo
(2003a). Mount Etna: Geochemical signals of magma
ascent and unusually extensive plumbing
system, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1057-1060,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015463.
Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., Nuccio, P.M., Paonita, A. and
A. Rizzo (2003b). Evidence of deep magma degassing
and ascent by geochemistry of peripheral gas emis-
sions at Mount Etna (Italy): Assessment of the mag-
matic reservoir pressure, J. Geophys. Res., 108, B10,
2463, doi: 10.1029/2002JB002095.
Chiodini, G., D’Alessandro, W. And F. Parello (1996).
Geochemistry of gases and waters discharged by the
mud volcanoes at Paternò, Mt. Etna (Italy), Bull. Vol-
canol., 58, 51-58.
Chiodini, G., Cioni, R., Guidi, M., Raco, B. and L. Marini
(1998). Soil CO2 flux measurements in volcanic and
geothermal areas, App. Geochem., 13, 543- 552.
Chiodini, G., Caliro S., Cardellini C., Avino R., Granieri
D. and A. Schmidt (2008). Carbon isotopic composi-
tion of soil CO2 efflux, a powerful method to dis-
criminate different sources feeding soil
CO2 degassing in volcanic-hydrothermal areas,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 274, 372-379,
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.07.051.
Corsaro, R.A. and L. Miraglia (2014). The transition
from summit to flank activity at Mt. Etna, Sicily
(Italy): Inferences from the petrology of products
erupted in 2007-2009, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
275, 51-60, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.02.009.
Čater M. and N. Ogrinc (2011). Soil respiration rates and
δ13CCO2 in natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica L.) in
relation to stand structure, Isot. Environ. Health, S
47, 221-237.
D’Alessandro, W., De Gregorio, S., Dongarrà, G., Gurri-
eri, S., Parello, F. and B. Parisi (1997a). Chemical and
isotopic characterization of the gases of Mount Etna
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 78, 65-76.
D’Alessandro, W., Giammanco, S., Parello, F. and M.
Valenza (1997b). CO2 output and δ13(CCO2)from
Mount Etna as indicators of degassing of shallow as-
thenosphere, Bull. Volcanol., 58, 455-458.
Farrar, C.D., Sorey, M.L., Evans, W.C., Howle, J.F., Kerr,
B.D., Kennedy, B.M., King, C.Y. and J.R Southon
(1995). Forest-killing diffuse CO2 emission at Mam-
moth Mountain as a sign of magmatic unrest, Na-
ture, 376, 675-678.
Ferrara, V. (1975). Idrogeologia del versante orientale
dell'Etna, proc. 3rd Int.l Congress on underground
Waters, Palermo, Italy, 91-144 (in Italian).
Giammanco, S., Gurrieri, S., and M. Valenza (1995). Soil
CO2 degassing on Mt. Etna (Sicily) during the period
1989-1993: discrimination between climatic and vol-
canic influences, Bull. Volcanol., 57, 52-60.
Giammanco, S., Inguaggiato, S. and M. Valenza (1998).
Soil and fumarole gases of Mount Etna: Geochem-
istry and relations with volcanic activity, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 81, 297-310.
Giammanco, S. and P. Bonfanti (2009). Cluster analysis
of soil CO2 data from Mt. Etna (Italy) reveals volcanic
influences on temporal and spatial patterns of de-
gassing, Bull. Volcanol., 71, 201-218, doi:
10.1007/s00445-008-0218-x.
Giammanco, S., Bellotti, F., Groppelli, G. and A. Pinton
(2010). Statistical analysis reveals spatial and temporal
anomalies of soil CO2 efflux on Mount Etna volcano
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 194, 1-14,
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.04.006.
Giammanco, S., Neri, M., Salerno, G.G., Caltabiano, T.,
Burton, M.R and V. Longo (2013). Evidence for a re-
cent change in the shallow plumbing system of Mt.
Etna (Italy): gas geochemistry and structural data
during 2001-2005, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 251,
90-97, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2012.06.001.
Gillot., P.-Y., Kieffer, G. and R. Romano (1994). The evo-
lution of Mount Etna in the light of potassium-argon
dating, Acta Vulcanol., 5, 81-87.
Hernández, P.A., Melián, G., Giammanco, S., Sortino, F.,
Barrancos, J., Pérez, N.M., Padrón, E., López, M.,
Donovan, A., Mori, T. and K. Notsu (2015). Contri-
bution of CO2 and H2S emitted to the atmosphere
by visible and non-visible degassing from volcanoes:
The Etna Volcano case study, Surv. Geophys., 36 (3),
327-349, doi: 10.1007/s10712-015-9321-7.
Knohl, A., Werner, R.A., Geilmann, H. and W.A. Brand
(2004). Kel-F discs improve storage time of canopy
air samples in 10-mL vials for CCO2 δ13 analysis, Rapid
Commun. Mass. Spectrom., 14, 1663-1665, doi:
10.1002/rcm.1528.
Krajnc, B., Fujiyoshi, R., Vaupotič, J., Amano, H., Sakuta,
Y., Gregorič, A. and N. Ogrinc (2016). using 222Rn
and carbon isotopes (12C, 13C and 14C) to determine
CO2 sources in forest soils developed on contrasting
geology in Slovenia, Environ. Earth. Sci., 75, 1068
doi: 10.1007/s12665-016-5866-0.
Krajnc, B., Ferlan, M. and N. Ogrinc (2017). Soil CO2
sources above a subterranean cave-Pisani rov (Posto-
jna Cave, Slovenia), J. Soils Sed., 17, 1883-1892. doi:
10.1007/s11368-016-1543-x.
Mattia, M., Bruno, V., Caltabiano, T., Cannata, A., Can-
navò, F., D’Alessandro, W., Di Grazia, W., Federico,
C., Giammanco, S., La Spina, A., Liuzzo, M., Longo,
M., Monaco, C., Patanè, D. and Salerno, G. (2015). A
comprehensive interpretative model of slow slip
events on Mt. Etna’s eastern flank, Geochem. Geo-
phys. Geosyst., 16, 635-658,
doi:10.1002/2014GC005585.
Mook, W.G., Bommerson, J.C., and W.H. Staverman
(1974). Carbon isotope fractionation between dis-
solved bicarbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 22, 169-176.
Nuccio, P.M. and Valenza, M. (1992). Modification of
geochemical parametres during magma ascent: The
case of Vulcano, Aeolian Islands. Publ. I.G.F. - CNR,
Palermo, Italy, 7, 1-23.
Nuccio, P.M. and Valenza, M. (1998). Magma degassing
and geochemical detection of its ascent, in Water-
Rock Interaction, Balkema Rotterdam, 475-478.
Parkinson, K.J. (1981). An improved method for mea-
suring soil respiration in the field, J. App. Ecol., 18,
221-228.
Pecoraino, G. and S. Giammanco (2005). Geochemical
Characterization and Temporal Changes in Parietal
Gas Emissions at Mt. Etna (Italy) During the Period
July 2000 - July 2003, Terr. Atmosph. Ocean. Sci., 16,
805-841.
Spötl C. (2004). A simple method of soil gas stable car-
bon isotope analysis, Rapid Commun. Mass Spec-
trom., 18, 1239-1242, doi: 10.1002/rcm.1468.
Torn, M.S., Davis, S., Bird, J.A., Shaw, M.R. and M.E.
Conrad (2003). Automated analysis of C-13/C-12 ra-
tios in CO2 and dissolved inorganic carbon for eco-
logical and environmental applications, Rapid
Commun. Mass Spectrom., 17, 2675-2682.
doi:10.1002/rcm.1246.
S., Parello, F., and M. Valenza (2004). Magmatic gas
leakage at Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy): relationships
with the volcano-tectonic structures, the hydrolog-
ical pattern and the eruptive activity, in Mt. Etna:
Volcano Laboratory, A.G.u. Geophysical Mono-
graph Series 143, 129-145, doi: 10.1029/143GM09.
Allard, A., Jean-Baptiste, P., D’alessandro, W., Parello, F.,
Parisi, B., and C. Flehoc (1997). Mantle-derived he-
lium and carbon in groundwaters and gases of Mount
Etna, Italy, Earth Planet, Sci. Let., 148, 501-516.
Anzà, S., Dongarrà, G., Giammanco, S., Gottini, V.,
Hauser, S. and M. Valenza (1989). Geochimica dei flu-
idi dell'Etna: Le acque sotterranee, Miner. Petrogr.
Acta, 32, 231-251 (in Italian).
Ahrens, L.H. (1954). The lognormal distribution of the
elements (A fundamental law of geochemistry and
its subsidiary). Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 5, 49-73.
Aureli, A. (1973). Idrogeologia del fianco occidentale
etneo, proc. 2nd Int.l Congress on underground Wa-
ters, Palermo, Italy, 425-487 (in Italian).
Behncke, B., Branca, S., Corsaro, R.A., De Beni, E.,
Miraglia, L. and C. Proietti (2014). The 2011-2012
summit activity of Mount Etna: birth, growth
and products of the new SE crater. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 270, 10-21.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2013.11.012.
De Beni, E., Behncke, B., Branca, S., Nicolosi, I., Carluc-
cio, R., D'Ajello Caracciolo, F. and M. Chiappini
(2015). The continuing story of Etna's New South-
east Crater (2012-2014): Evolution and volume cal-
culations based on field surveys and
aerophotogrammetry. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
303, 175-186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeo-
res.2015.07.021.
Bonaccorso, A., Bonforte, A., Calvari, S., Del Negro, C.,
Di Grazia, G., Ganci, G., Neri, M., Vicari, A. and E.
Boschi (2011). The initial phases of the 2008-2009
Mount Etna eruption: A multidisciplinary approach
for hazard assessment. J. Geophys. Res., 116, B03203,
doi:10.1029/2010JB007906.
Bonfanti, P., D'Alessandro, W., Dongarrà, G., Parello, F.
and M. Valenza (1996). Medium-term anomalies in
groundwater temperature before 1991-1993 Mt. Etna
Eruption, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 73, 303-308.
Bruno N, Caltabiano T, Giammanco S and R. Romano
(2001). Degassing of SO2 and CO2 at Mount Etna
(Sicily) as an indicator of pre-eruptive ascent and shal-
low emplacement of magma, J. Volcanol. Geotherm.
Res., 110, 137-153.
Brusca, L., Aiuppa, A., D’alessandro, W., Parello, F., Al-
lard, P., and A. Michel (2001). Geochemical mapping
of magmatic gas-water-rock interactions in the
aquifer of Mount Etna volcano, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 108, 199-218.
Caracausi, A., Favara, R., Giammanco, S., Italiano, F.,
Nuccio, P.M., Paonita, A., Pecoraino, G. and A. Rizzo
(2003a). Mount Etna: Geochemical signals of magma
ascent and unusually extensive plumbing
system, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1057-1060,
doi:10.1029/2002GL015463.
Caracausi, A., Italiano, F., Nuccio, P.M., Paonita, A. and
A. Rizzo (2003b). Evidence of deep magma degassing
and ascent by geochemistry of peripheral gas emis-
sions at Mount Etna (Italy): Assessment of the mag-
matic reservoir pressure, J. Geophys. Res., 108, B10,
2463, doi: 10.1029/2002JB002095.
Chiodini, G., D’Alessandro, W. And F. Parello (1996).
Geochemistry of gases and waters discharged by the
mud volcanoes at Paternò, Mt. Etna (Italy), Bull. Vol-
canol., 58, 51-58.
Chiodini, G., Cioni, R., Guidi, M., Raco, B. and L. Marini
(1998). Soil CO2 flux measurements in volcanic and
geothermal areas, App. Geochem., 13, 543- 552.
Chiodini, G., Caliro S., Cardellini C., Avino R., Granieri
D. and A. Schmidt (2008). Carbon isotopic composi-
tion of soil CO2 efflux, a powerful method to dis-
criminate different sources feeding soil
CO2 degassing in volcanic-hydrothermal areas,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 274, 372-379,
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.07.051.
Corsaro, R.A. and L. Miraglia (2014). The transition
from summit to flank activity at Mt. Etna, Sicily
(Italy): Inferences from the petrology of products
erupted in 2007-2009, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res.,
275, 51-60, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.02.009.
Čater M. and N. Ogrinc (2011). Soil respiration rates and
δ13CCO2 in natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica L.) in
relation to stand structure, Isot. Environ. Health, S
47, 221-237.
D’Alessandro, W., De Gregorio, S., Dongarrà, G., Gurri-
eri, S., Parello, F. and B. Parisi (1997a). Chemical and
isotopic characterization of the gases of Mount Etna
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 78, 65-76.
D’Alessandro, W., Giammanco, S., Parello, F. and M.
Valenza (1997b). CO2 output and δ13(CCO2)from
Mount Etna as indicators of degassing of shallow as-
thenosphere, Bull. Volcanol., 58, 455-458.
Farrar, C.D., Sorey, M.L., Evans, W.C., Howle, J.F., Kerr,
B.D., Kennedy, B.M., King, C.Y. and J.R Southon
(1995). Forest-killing diffuse CO2 emission at Mam-
moth Mountain as a sign of magmatic unrest, Na-
ture, 376, 675-678.
Ferrara, V. (1975). Idrogeologia del versante orientale
dell'Etna, proc. 3rd Int.l Congress on underground
Waters, Palermo, Italy, 91-144 (in Italian).
Giammanco, S., Gurrieri, S., and M. Valenza (1995). Soil
CO2 degassing on Mt. Etna (Sicily) during the period
1989-1993: discrimination between climatic and vol-
canic influences, Bull. Volcanol., 57, 52-60.
Giammanco, S., Inguaggiato, S. and M. Valenza (1998).
Soil and fumarole gases of Mount Etna: Geochem-
istry and relations with volcanic activity, J. Volcanol.
Geotherm. Res., 81, 297-310.
Giammanco, S. and P. Bonfanti (2009). Cluster analysis
of soil CO2 data from Mt. Etna (Italy) reveals volcanic
influences on temporal and spatial patterns of de-
gassing, Bull. Volcanol., 71, 201-218, doi:
10.1007/s00445-008-0218-x.
Giammanco, S., Bellotti, F., Groppelli, G. and A. Pinton
(2010). Statistical analysis reveals spatial and temporal
anomalies of soil CO2 efflux on Mount Etna volcano
(Italy), J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 194, 1-14,
doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.04.006.
Giammanco, S., Neri, M., Salerno, G.G., Caltabiano, T.,
Burton, M.R and V. Longo (2013). Evidence for a re-
cent change in the shallow plumbing system of Mt.
Etna (Italy): gas geochemistry and structural data
during 2001-2005, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 251,
90-97, doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2012.06.001.
Gillot., P.-Y., Kieffer, G. and R. Romano (1994). The evo-
lution of Mount Etna in the light of potassium-argon
dating, Acta Vulcanol., 5, 81-87.
Hernández, P.A., Melián, G., Giammanco, S., Sortino, F.,
Barrancos, J., Pérez, N.M., Padrón, E., López, M.,
Donovan, A., Mori, T. and K. Notsu (2015). Contri-
bution of CO2 and H2S emitted to the atmosphere
by visible and non-visible degassing from volcanoes:
The Etna Volcano case study, Surv. Geophys., 36 (3),
327-349, doi: 10.1007/s10712-015-9321-7.
Knohl, A., Werner, R.A., Geilmann, H. and W.A. Brand
(2004). Kel-F discs improve storage time of canopy
air samples in 10-mL vials for CCO2 δ13 analysis, Rapid
Commun. Mass. Spectrom., 14, 1663-1665, doi:
10.1002/rcm.1528.
Krajnc, B., Fujiyoshi, R., Vaupotič, J., Amano, H., Sakuta,
Y., Gregorič, A. and N. Ogrinc (2016). using 222Rn
and carbon isotopes (12C, 13C and 14C) to determine
CO2 sources in forest soils developed on contrasting
geology in Slovenia, Environ. Earth. Sci., 75, 1068
doi: 10.1007/s12665-016-5866-0.
Krajnc, B., Ferlan, M. and N. Ogrinc (2017). Soil CO2
sources above a subterranean cave-Pisani rov (Posto-
jna Cave, Slovenia), J. Soils Sed., 17, 1883-1892. doi:
10.1007/s11368-016-1543-x.
Mattia, M., Bruno, V., Caltabiano, T., Cannata, A., Can-
navò, F., D’Alessandro, W., Di Grazia, W., Federico,
C., Giammanco, S., La Spina, A., Liuzzo, M., Longo,
M., Monaco, C., Patanè, D. and Salerno, G. (2015). A
comprehensive interpretative model of slow slip
events on Mt. Etna’s eastern flank, Geochem. Geo-
phys. Geosyst., 16, 635-658,
doi:10.1002/2014GC005585.
Mook, W.G., Bommerson, J.C., and W.H. Staverman
(1974). Carbon isotope fractionation between dis-
solved bicarbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide,
Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 22, 169-176.
Nuccio, P.M. and Valenza, M. (1992). Modification of
geochemical parametres during magma ascent: The
case of Vulcano, Aeolian Islands. Publ. I.G.F. - CNR,
Palermo, Italy, 7, 1-23.
Nuccio, P.M. and Valenza, M. (1998). Magma degassing
and geochemical detection of its ascent, in Water-
Rock Interaction, Balkema Rotterdam, 475-478.
Parkinson, K.J. (1981). An improved method for mea-
suring soil respiration in the field, J. App. Ecol., 18,
221-228.
Pecoraino, G. and S. Giammanco (2005). Geochemical
Characterization and Temporal Changes in Parietal
Gas Emissions at Mt. Etna (Italy) During the Period
July 2000 - July 2003, Terr. Atmosph. Ocean. Sci., 16,
805-841.
Spötl C. (2004). A simple method of soil gas stable car-
bon isotope analysis, Rapid Commun. Mass Spec-
trom., 18, 1239-1242, doi: 10.1002/rcm.1468.
Torn, M.S., Davis, S., Bird, J.A., Shaw, M.R. and M.E.
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