http://hdl.handle.net/2122/69 Thu, 20 Jun 2013 12:00:06 GMT 2013-06-20T12:00:06Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8392 Title: Assessment of the impact caused by natural disasters: simplified procedures and open problems Authors: Petrucci, Olga; CNR-IRPI Editors: Tiefenbacher, J.P. Abstract: A natural hazard is a geophysical, atmospheric or hydrological event (e.g., earthquake, landslide, tsunami, windstorm, flood or drought) that has the potential to cause harm or loss, while a natural disaster is the occurrence of an extreme hazard event that impacts on communities causing damage, disruption and casualties, and leaving the affected communities unable to function normally without outside assistance (Twig, 2007). The definition of natural disaster impact (NDI) can change according to both the aim of the study and the scientist assessing it. It can be defined as constituting the direct, indirect and intangible losses caused on environment and society by a natural disaster (Swiss Re, 1998). Direct losses include physical effects such as destruction and changes that reduce the functionality of an individual or structure. Damages to people (death/injury), buildings, their contents, and vehicles are included, as are clean-up and disposal costs. Indirect losses affect society by disrupting or damaging utility services and local businesses. Loss of revenue; increase in cost; expenses connected to the provision of assistance, lodging, and drinking water; and costs associated with the need to drive longer distances because of blocked roads are included. Intangible losses include psychological impairments caused by both direct and intangible losses that individuals personally suffer during the disaster. The Natural Disaster Impact Assessment (NDIA) is crucial in helping individuals to estimate replacement costs and to conduct cost-benefit analyses in allotting resources to prevent and mitigate the consequences of damage (UNEP-ECLAC, 2000). A general NDIA procedure has not yet been developed; several approaches are available in literature and their applicability depends on the accessibility of damage data. Possible end users of NDIA include the following (Lindell & Prater, 2003): 1. Governments, with an interest in estimating direct losses to report to taxpayers and to identify segments of the community that have been (or might be) disproportionately affected 2. Community leaders, who may need to use loss data after a disaster strikes to determine if external assistance is necessary and, if so, how much. 3. Planners, who can develop damage predictions to assess the effects of alternative hazard adjustments. Knowing both the expected losses and the extent to which those losses could be reduced makes it possible to implement cost-effective mitigation strategies. 4. Insurers, who need data on the maximum losses in their portfolios to guarantee their solvency or even to undertake additional measures to alleviate the risk that they would face in case of a disaster (i.e., the use of catastrophe bonds which are risk-linked securities that transfer a specified set of risks from a sponsor to investors) (Noy & Nualsri, 2011). Data availability and reliability, especially for old events, represent constraints in the NDIA context because of several issues of very different type: 1. Data availability, for current events, depends on the time at which data gathering started. It is impossible to decide a priori when data have to be gathered: it primarily depends on the type of phenomenon causing the disaster and its magnitude, and secondly on the scope of the assessment (for example, the assessment should not be unnecessarily delayed as there is an urgent need to elicit support from the international community) (ECLAC, 2003). 2. Long-term losses must sometimes be determined over a period of years. Slow landslides, for example, can cause damage over long periods. Intangible damage like disaster-related stress also requires years to be detected (Bland et al., 1996). 3. In most countries, there are no agencies responsible for gathering damage data. Damage caused by severest events can be mined from international databases, while data on less severe events can be obtained by means of specific historical studies. 4. Data on property damage can depreciate the value of property, thus they would not be available or not completely reliable (Highland, 2003). 5. For some type of disasters, as landslides or floods, the costs of damages to structures such as roads are often merged with maintenance costs and are therefore not labelled as damage. In addition, when heavy rains trigger both landslides and floods (Petrucci and Polemio, 2009), it is difficult to separate landslide damage from flood damage. 6. Developing countries have an incentive to exaggerate damage to receive higher amounts of international assistance; thus, in these cases, data may not be entirely reliable (Toya & Skidmore, 2007). This chapter starts with a panoramic of the different approaches reported in the literature to assess the impact of natural disasters, and then presents some simplified approaches to perform a relative and comparative assessment of the impact caused by phenomena as landslides and floods triggered by heavy rainfall during events defined as Damaging Hydrogeological Events. Finally, some indices to assess the relative impact of landslides are presented. Sat, 31 Dec 2011 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8392 2011-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8372 Title: Integrated Numerical Models in Coastal Areas: An Example of Their Application in the North Adriatic Sea Authors: Carniel, Sandro; Sclavo, Mauro; Tondello, Massimo; Ciavola, Paolo Editors: Oddo, P Abstract: Recent decades have witnessed considerable developments in the field of integrated numerical models used for simulating dynamic processes in coastal areas, that can now provide quantitative support to decision makers for questions such as erosion and coastal vulnerability. Improvements in various theoretical formulations and an on-going increase in computing power (alongside the growing availability of long-term observations and numerical output from meteorological and sea-state models) allow the implementation of high-resolution and long-term applications.However, the efficient use of these numerical tools is a function of their capacity to describe a variety of physical processes that are ‘integrated’ amongst themselves correctly. Indeed, from the air-sea interface to the turbulent mixing of water masses and the water-sediment interaction, integrated numerical modelling has to face a series of scientific and practical challenges still open. Examples include the non-linear interaction of waves and currents, the problem of turbulence, the modelling of resuspension and sediment-transport processes, the role of longperiod waves in generating beach and dune erosion. Dealing with these using numerical models is necessary for a variety of reasons, from protecting the coast to search-and-rescue activities and support for marine construction work of all types. Sat, 31 Dec 2011 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8372 2011-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8066 Title: Climatology of the Central-Northern Adriatic Sea Authors: Russo, Aniello; Carniel, Sandro; Sclavo, Mauro; Krzelj, Maja Editors: InTech Abstract: It is well know that the ocean processes exert a great influence on global climate as well as affect the local climate of coastal areas (Russo et al., 2002). Within the Mediterranean region (see Fig. 1a), the presence of the Adriatic Sea influences the atmospheric properties of the surrounding regions over long and short time-scales, and has obviously a relevant influence on human activities and ecosystems (Boldrin et al., 2009).This Chapter will describe the main climatological characteristics of the northern-central Adriatic Sea (see Figure 1b) assessed on a human time-scale, i.e. the last few decades. Sat, 31 Dec 2011 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8066 2011-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8047 Title: High pressure artesian wells to tap Torbido spring (Italy) Authors: Cotecchia, V.; Politecnico di Bari; D'Ecclesiis, G.; Università della Basilicata; Polemio, M.; CNR-IRPI Editors: Chowdhury, R. N.; Sivakumar, M. Abstract: Torbido Spring is located at the foot of Mount Sirino (Basilicata, Italy). From the bottom upwards the geological formations include: Flinty Limestones with high secondary permeability, forming the spring aquifer; Siliceous Schists consisting of radiolarites and multicoloured jaspers; and Galestrino Flysch, formed of argillites and marls. The Spring is singular in that the artesian waters from the limestones which are at a depth of 80 m here, come to the surface because of the marked fissuring of the Siliceous Schists. The headworks consist of a system of unpumped wells. The groundwaters are intercepted before they leak away in the detrital surface cover and before they lose their hydrostatic head (more than 4 bar above ground level). The maximum discharge which can be abstracted and handled by the wellfield and appurtenant works is around 300 l/s. This permits peak demand to be met without any waste of resources and guarantees the annual hydrologic balance between recharge and discharge. These objectives are attained by continuous monitoring of the significant hydrogeological and hydraulic parameters. Thu, 31 Dec 1992 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/8047 1992-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7968 Title: An agricultural decision support system for optimal land use regarding groundwater vulnerability Authors: Voudouris, K.; Aristotle University, Greece; Polemio, M.; CNR-IRPI, italy; Kazakis, N.; Aristotle University, Greece; Sifaleras, A.; University of Macedonia, Greece Editors: Wang, J.; Montclair State University, USA Abstract: The availability of good quality water is worldwide a basic condition to pursue the socioeconomic development. The agriculture water demand can be damaged by contamination of groundwater resources. This paper proposes a tool to preserve the groundwater quality by using groundwater vulnerability assessment methods and a decision support system (DSS). Vulnerability map could be used for planning, policy, management, and contamination assessment. The mapping of intrinsic groundwater vulnerability was based on reliable methods, i.e., the DRASTIC and the SINTACS methods. A vulnerability map could be used for planning, policy, management, and contamination assessment. A DSS was developed in order to assess the groundwater vulnerability and pollution risk due to agricultural activities and land use changes. The proposed DSS software package was designed using the Matlab language. The software is a friendly application for everyone ranging from the novice user, e.g., a student, to an operations research scientist. It quickly and efficiently performs the task that is scheduled to carry out, and it can incorporate new maps in order to cover new areas. The tool was tested using two study areas located in the Mediterranean area. The test sites are dominated by different prevalent hydrogeological features, i.e., the typical porous features of alluvial deposits in the Greek study area and the typical fissured and karstic features of limestones and dolostones in the Italian study area. Sat, 31 Dec 2011 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7968 2011-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7941 Title: Background and summary: a new focus on groundwater-seawater interactions Authors: Sanford, W; Florida Integrated Science Center, US Geological Survey, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA langevin@usgs.gov; Langevin, C; National Center, US Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, USA; Polemio, M; Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica, Bari, Italy; Povinec, P; Mathematics, Physics, and Informatics, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia Editors: Sanford, W; Langevin, C; Polemio, M; Povinec, P Abstract: Water and chemical fluxes across the sea floor provide an important linkage between terrestrial and marine environments. Oceanographers recognize that these fluxes may act as a source of nutrients or other harmful contaminants to marine systems (e.g. Johannes, 1980; Valiela et al., 1990). These fluxes may also act as a beneficial source of freshwater for coastal marine estuaries that require relatively low salinities. Hydrologists and hydrogeologists recognize that fluxes across the sea floor comprise an important part of the water balance for coastal aquifers. Most fresh groundwater discharge to the ocean is derived from terrestrial aquifer recharge. Management of coastal aquifers requires careful estimates of recharge and other hydrological components, such as groundwater discharge. These estimates are commonly combined into a comprehensive water budget to evaluate how much groundwater might be available for municipal uses and whether saltwater intrusion may be a potential concern. Excessive groundwater withdrawals can cause saltwater intrusion by intercepting the seaward flux of freshwater that prevents saltwater from intruding a coastal aquifer. Quantitative estimates of fresh groundwater discharge toward the coast can provide a basis for determining safe withdrawal rates. Oceanographers, marine scientists, and those studying and managing saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers, share a common goal of quantification and understanding of groundwater and seawater interactions. Submarine groundwater discharge, or SGD, has become a popular term in the literature for describing the flux of water across the sea floor. Burnett et al. (2003) specifically define SGD as the discharge of aquifer porewater across the sea floor and into the ocean. They define flow in the opposite direction as submarine groundwater recharge (SGR). SGR is the recharging flux of seawater into the aquifer. The presence of SGR does not necessarily indicate saltwater intrusion, which occurs when saline water moves into parts of the aquifer previously occupied by freshwater. A conceptual model of the types of flow patterns that are expected to exist in many coastal aquifers at the terrestrial–marine boundary is shown. Through a detailed field study, Kohout (1960) showed that as fresh groundwater flows seaward, it meets and mixes with saline groundwater before discharging into the ocean. Because of this mixing and subsequent discharge to the ocean, seawater is drawn into the aquifer to replace the saline groundwater that discharged to the ocean. Seawater drawn into the aquifer is sometimes referred to as recirculated seawater. Michael et al. (2005) suggest that the seasonality of terrestrial recharge may also act as a mechanism for recirculating seawater through a coastal aquifer. As the mixing zone moves landward and seaward in response to seasonal fluctuations in recharge, seawater may be drawn in and flushed out of the aquifer over the course of a year. SGD can also occur at the bottom of the open ocean, even in the absence of a terrestrial connection. Waves, tides, and ocean currents can create hydraulic gradients that pump seawater across the sea floor. Interest in groundwater–seawater interactions continues to receive a significant amount of attention in the literature. Saltwater intrusion, freshwater deliveries to marine estuaries, and nutrient loading are persistent problems of global importance. The problems are difficult to address, however, because of the elusive nature of SGD. Fortunately, the science is advancing. The journal Biogeochemistry, dedicated the entire November 2003 issue to the subject of SGD as did the journal Ground Water, in the December 2004 issue. Zektser & Dzhamalov (2007) released a comprehensive review on the subject of SGD and groundwater–seawater interactions in a new book: Submarine Groundwater. In their book, they suggest that SGD and related studies should be categorized into a new field called “Marine Hydrogeology”. The concentrated efforts of numerous researchers from a wide range of disciplines have led to substantial advancements in characterizing SGD, but there is still more work to be done. Sun, 31 Dec 2006 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7941 2006-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7936 Title: Rainfall as a landslide triggering factor an overview of recent international research Authors: Polemio, M.; CNR-IRPI Editors: Petrucci, O.; CNR-IRPI Abstract: Rainfall is the most common cause of landslides. The cost of Rainfall Triggered Landslides (RTL) is not well documented and often unobtainable. In areas where they do not pose a threat to life, great damage is caused to farmland and communication infrastructures and pasture bio-mass production is heavily reduced (Table 1). In Japan more than 10,000 RTL are reported every year which claim the lives of some 400 persons (Fukuoka, 1980); A single event has killed 100 persons and inflicted property damages estimated at 300 billion yen Shimizu (1988). Given the importance of the topic, some 138 papers dealing with RTL were selected and key information was collected in a database. Nearly 82 % of all records are local investigations carried out in 23 countries. Italy provides the largest sample as for authors' nationality and widespread proneness to landslides; followed by United States (15 %), Hong Kong (8 %), Japan and United Kingdom. About 21 % of all selected papers are methodological research or syntheses and comparisons of different methodologies. Investigations refer to widespread landsliding (69 % of AD) (that is the Available Data number for each database field), the remainder corresponds to single or few landslides. A landslide classification proposed by Hutchinsons (1995) and based on the maximum depth of failure (Vm), is adopted in this work. About 40 % of AD are intermediate or deep-seated landslides (Vm > 10 m), that include all reactivations, the rest are shallow or superficial landslides, generally first-time movements. The most frequent types are: flows, translational and rotational slides, slips, avalanches and creep, decreasing order (Cruden & Varnes 1996) with soil or debris generally constituting the landslide bodies. Daily (54 % of AD), hourly (28 %), monthly (15 %) and yearly (4 %) rainfalls are used as input. Roughly 49 % consider cumulative rainfall (a rain water height obtained adding regularly monitored rainfall) of different duration. The prevalent approach is empirical, statistical or hydrological-qualitative; one out of four is partially physical and often uses numerical modelling. About 10 % combine rainfall effect characterisation with geotechnical stability analysis. The results of research in progress have been summarised. Fri, 31 Dec 1999 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7936 1999-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7935 Title: Piovosità, franosità e aree montane poco sviluppate: il caso dell’alto Ionio cosentino Authors: Petrucci, O.; CNR-IRPI; Polemio, M.; CNR-IRPI Abstract: L’assetto geomorfologico e le condizioni climatiche fanno della Calabria una delle regioni maggiormente vulnerate da fenomeni franosi. Il reticolo viario di questa regione, che attraversa ampi settori a elevata pericolosità da frana, presenta lunghi tratti con tipologie costruttive concepite nel corso della prima metà del secolo scorso e mai soggette a un sostanziale ammodernamento, così come osservato per altre aree dell’Italia meridionale (Sdao & Polemio 2000). Dal punto di vista della stabilità delle scarpate e dei principali manufatti, gli accorgimenti costruttivi sono spesso essenziali e le opere di sostegno di limitata estensione, lasciando esposta una porzione molto estesa della rete. D’altra parte, anche i tratti di più moderna realizzazione si sono dimostrati drammaticamente vulnerabili in virtù della spiccata propensione al dissesto idrogeologico del territorio calabrese. Il complesso di tali effetti ha causato frequenti e ingenti danni, specialmente nel corso di stagioni invernali durante le quali piogge intense e prolungate determinano l’insorgenza di crisi territoriali comunemente definite eventi alluvionali (Petrucci & Polemio 2003, Petrucci et al. 2009). In tali circostanze i dissesti che si determinano lungo la rete viaria rappresentano una fonte di danno sia diretto che indiretto per la comunità. Nei casi più gravi sono tali da costituire persino un impedimento alle attività di protezione civile, mentre, in situazioni di minore gravità, ostacolano comunque il ripristino della normale mobilità. L’analisi della serie storica dei fenomeni franosi che hanno interessato la rete viaria di un settore territoriale della regione durante un arco temporale di significativa estensione (1921-1997 nel caso di studio) può costituire, in questo contesto, uno strumento in grado di mettere facilmente in luce i punti critici del sistema viario, fornendo altresì indicazioni di dettaglio sulle principali tipologie di frane da temere e sulle condizioni pluviometriche che ne determinano l’innesco. Una volta individuati i tratti più frequentemente e/o intensamente vulnerabili, tali conoscenze rappresentano la base per la pianificazione sia della messa in sicurezza che della gestione delle emergenze, unitamente alla previsione della manutenzione straordinaria. Fri, 31 Dec 2010 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7935 2010-12-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7713 Title: Water in Mid Ocean Ridge Basalts: Some Like it Hot, Some Like it Cold Authors: Ligi, M.; Istituto di Scienze Marine - CNR; Bonatti, E.; Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory - Columbia University, New York (USA); Brunelli, D.; Dipartimento Scienze della Terra, Università di Modena; Cipriani, A.; Dipartimento Scienze della Terra, Università di Modena; Ottolini, L.; Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse - CNR Editors: Brugnoli, Enrico; DTA-CNR; Cavarretta, Giuseppe; DTA-CNR; Mazzola, Salvatore; IAMC-CNR; Trincardi, Fabio; ISMAR-CNR; Ravaioli, Mariangela; ISMAR-CNR; Santoleri, Rosalia; CNR Abstract: The presence in the Earth’s mantle of even small amounts of water and other volatiles has major effects: first, it lowers drastically mantle’s viscosity, thereby facilitating convection and plate tectonics; second, it lowers the melting temperature of the rising mantle affecting the formation of the oceanic crust. H2O concentration in oceanic basalts stays below 0.2 wt% except for basalts sampled near “hot spots” that contain significantly more H2O than normal MORB, implying that their mantle plume sources are unusually H2O-rich. Basalts sampled in the Equatorial Atlantic close to the Romanche transform, a thermal minimum in the Ridge system, have a H2O content that increases as the ridge is cooled approaching the transform offset. These basalts are Na-rich, being generated by low degrees of melting of the mantle, and contain unusually high ratios of light versus heavy rare earth elements implying the presence of garnet in the melting region. H2O enrichment is due not to an unusually H2O-rich mantle source, but to a low extent of melting of the upwelling mantle, confined to a deep wet melting region. Numerical models predict that this wet melting process takes place mostly in the mantle zone of stability of garnet. This prediction is verified by the geochemistry of our basalts showing that garnet must indeed have been present in their mantle source. Thus, oceanic basalts are H2O-rich not only near “hot spots”, but also at “cold spots”. Mon, 31 Oct 2011 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/7713 2011-10-31T23:00:00Z http://hdl.handle.net/2122/6278 Title: Preface Authors: Sanford, W.; Langevin, C.; Polemio, M.; Povinec, P. Abstract: Water and chemical fluxes across the sea bottom provide an important linkage between terrestrial and marine environments. From the marine perspective, these water fluxes, commonly referred to as submarine groundwater discharge (SGD), may contain elevated nutrient concentrations or high levels of other potentially harmful contaminants. Terrestrially derived SGD can also be an important source of freshwater for estuarine ecosystems that require relatively low salinities. For these reasons, the past decade has shown a rapid increase in the level of interest from estuary and marine scientists toward a better understanding of SGD. From the terrestrial perspective, SGD has also been a topic of interest to those studying saltwater intrusion and management of coastal aquifers. Saltwater intrusion studies commonly employ some form of a water balance method, whether through numerical modelling or volumetric calculations, to explain intrusion patterns and develop predictions and management plans. In developing a water balance for a coastal aquifer, estimates for all of the key components, including SGD, are synthesized. Although the motivation may be different depending on whether one works from the marine or terrestrial perspective, both groups have a common goal of obtaining accurate SGD estimates Sun, 31 Dec 2006 23:00:00 GMT http://hdl.handle.net/2122/6278 2006-12-31T23:00:00Z